PR truyền thông - Chapter three: Humanistic theories of organizations

UNIT ONETheoretical FoundationsCHAPTER THREEHumanistic Theories of OrganizationsPREVIEWReview Classical Theories of OrganizationsTaylor’s Theory of Scientific ManagementFayol’s Administrative TheoryWeber’s Theory of BureaucracyHumanistic Theories of Organizations Human Relations TheoryThe Hawthorne StudiesChester BarnardMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory YHuman Resources TheoryLikert’s Systems Theory (Four Systems of Management)Blake and Mouton’s (Blake and McCanse) Managerial GridClassical Theories ReviewedClassical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management (tasks)Fayol’s Administrative Theory (mgmt)Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy (org structure)All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability to predict and control the behavior of their workersConsidered only the task function of communication (ignored relational and maintenance functions of communication)Designed to predict and control behavior in organizationsClassical vs. HumanisticClassical theories emphasized coercion, control, and punishment (FOCUS ON TASKS /PRODUCTION).Maintain predictability and controlDecision-making power at top of hierarchyMinimize input from lower-level employeesRely on science and rules to guide behaviorRegulate communication to increase predictability and decrease misunderstandingsResult: Workers feel they have no control over their work situationManagement does not care about their ideasFeelings and ideas of workers are unimportantHumanistic theories were developed to promote the CONCERNS of the individual worker in an atmosphere that was too focused on production (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS)Principles of Human Relations TheoryHuman relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis from TASK to WORKERGo beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive, and emotional aspects of workersBased on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of communication.SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of workersWorkers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and feelings to increase satisfaction and productionOrigins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard)Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo (HarvardOrigins of Human Relations Theory“The Hawthorne StudiesHawthorne Works of Western Electric Company1924 - ChicagoResearch focus: Relation of quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industryFour Important Studies“The Hawthorne Studies”Illumination Study (November 1924)Designed to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivityHeuristic value: influence of human relations on work behaviorRelay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Production and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulationWorkers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practicesHuman interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker productivityBottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivityInterviewing Program (1928-1930) Investigate connection between supervisory practices and employee moraleEmployees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes)Process more important than actual resultsBank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Social groups can influence production and individual work behaviorRQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor?Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational structureHawthorne Studies - ImplicationsIllumination Study (November 1924)The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their behavior (Hawthorne Effect)Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Relationships between workers and their supervisors are powerfulHuman interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker participation in decision makingInterviewing Program (1928-1930) Demonstrated powerful influence of upward communicationWorkers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes toward company increasedBank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Led future theorists to account for the existence of informal communicationTaken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the interpersonal aspects of organizing.Hawthorne Studies - CriticismsNot conducted with the appropriate scientific rigor necessaryToo few subjects (N=5)No control groupsSubjects replaced with more “cooperative” participantsWORTHLESSGROSS ERRORSINCOMPETENCEThe Emergence of CommunicationChester BarnardConsidered a bridge between classical and human relations theoriesThe Functions of the Executive (1938)Argues for . . . strict lines of communication - classical theorya “human-based system of organization”The potential of every worker and the centrality of communication to the organizing processSix Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationFormal vs. Informal OrganizationCooperationCommunicationIncentivesAuthorityZone of IndifferenceSix Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationFormal vs. Informal OrganizationFormal Organization - a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. (definite, structured, common purpose)Persons are able to communicate with one anotherWilling to contribute actionTo accomplish a common purposeInformal Organization - based on myriad interactions that take place thourghout an organization’s history.IndefiniteStructurelessNo definite subdivisions of personnelResults: customs, mores, folklore, institutions, social norms, ideals -- may lead to formal organizationCooperationNecessary component of formal organizationThe expression of the net satisfactions or dissatisfactions experienced or anticipated by each individual in comparison with those experienced or anticipated through alternative opportunitiesCommunicationCritical to cooperation The most universal form of human cooperation, and perhaps the most complex, is speechThe most likely reason for the success of cooperation and the reason for its failureSystem of communication: known, formal channels which are as direct (short) as possible, where the complete line of communication is used, the supervisory heads must be competent, the line of communication should not be interrupted, and every communication should be authenticated.Barnard’s system lacks relationship formation and maintenance mechanismsSix Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationIncentivesShould be availableNot discussed in detailAuthorityAssociated with securing cooperation for organizational membersThe interrelationship among the originator of the communication, the communication itself, and the receiverAuthority of position OVER Authority of Leadership (knowledge & ability).Zone of Indifference - orders followedMarks the boundaries of what employees will consider doing without question, based on expectations developed on entering the organization. Barnard drew attention away from formal organizational structures toward communication, cooperation, and the informal organization. His work was integrated by other theorists in the human relations movement.Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorDouglas McGregor (1906-1964)Articulated basic principles of human relations theoryThe Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985)To understand human behavior, one must discover the theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is basedEspecially interested in the behavior of managers toward workers“Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations, and hypotheses--that is to say, on theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable.”Two Objectives:Predict and control behaviorTap Unrealized potentialTheory X - Classical TheoryTheory Y - Human Relations TheoryFOCUS: Manager’s assumptions about HUMAN NATURETheory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorTheory X - Classical TheoryThree AssumptionsThe average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it.Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishmentThe average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security.Neither explains nor describes human natureTheory Y - Human Relations TheoryAssumptionsPhysical and mental effort in work is similar to play / rest.External control and the threat of punishment are not the only strategiesCommitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievementThe average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibilityThe capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed in the populationIntellectual potentialities of the average human being are underutilizedA more positive perspective of human natureThe KEY to control and quality production is commitment to organizational objectivesTheory Y Prototype: The Scanlon PlanParticipative ManagementTwo Central FeaturesCost-reduction sharing for organizational members - sharing the economic gains from improvements in organizational performanceEffective participation - a formal means of providing opportunities to every member of the organization to contribute ideas for improving organizational effectiveness.Must be implemented appropriatelyWastes time and undermines managerial power?Magic formula for every organizational problem?CONCERN for RELATIONSHIPS in the organization.As the need to increase commitment grows, so does the need to develop strong, communication-based relationships among organizational members, particularly between supervisor and subordinate.Miles’ Human Resources TheoryDifficult to adopt principles of human relations theory -- misapplications and misunderstandings of both classical theory and human relations theory led to Human Resources TheoryThe key element to Human Relations Theory, participation, was used only to make workers feel as if they were part of the organizational decision-making processesKey to classical and human relations theory is compliance with managerial authorityWorkers are told that they are important but were not treated as suchMajor Distinctions between Human Resources and Human Relations TheoryAll people (not just managers) are reservoirs of untapped resources - manager responsibility to tap physical and creative resourcesMany decisions can be made more effectively and efficiently by workers most directly involved with their consequencesRelationship between employee satisfaction and performance - improved satisfaction and morale contribute back to improved decision making and controlMiles’ Human Resources TheoryIncreased satisfaction is related to the improved decision making and self-control that occurs due to participation that is genuinely solicited and heardTwo prevalent Human Resources TheoriesRensis LikerBlake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert (Figure 3.2, p. 56)Management is crticial to all organizational activities and outcomesContinuum that ranges from more classically oriented system to one based on human resources theoryOf all the tasks of management, managing the human component is the central and most important taskHigh producing departments and organizations tend toward System IV; low producing units favor System I System I - Exploitative AuthoritativeSystem II - Benevolent AuthoritativeSystem III - ConsultativeSystem IV - ParticipativeBlake and Mouton’s Managerial GridStresses interrelationship between production (task) and peopleManagement’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the organization that allows for high production at the same time that employees are fostered in their professional and personal developmentManagerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) (Figure 3.3, p. 59)FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for PEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTIONConcern for PEOPLEDegree of personal commitment to one’s jobTrust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based accountability)Self-esteem for the individualInterpersonal relationships with co-workersConcern for PRODUCTIONUse of people and technology to accomplish organizational tasksConcern for is not about quantity or qualityAssessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and peopleBlake and Mouton’s Managerial GridAuthority Compliance (9,1)Classical theoryCountry Club (1,9)Informal grapevineImpoverished (1,1)Laissez-faireMiddle-of-the-Road (5,5)Compromise (carrot & stick)Team (9,9)Human Resources ApproachPromote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team actionSUMMARYHumanistic Theories of Organizations Human Relations TheoryThe Hawthorne StudiesChester BarnardMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory YHuman Resources TheoryLikert’s Systems Theory (Four Systems of Management)Blake and Mouton’s (Blake and McCanse) Managerial GridThe principles of human resources theory attempt to integrate the concern for production from classical theory with the concern for the worker from human relations theory -- more effective and satisfying!