A study on idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese

stituted components. Therefore, their meanings can not be deduced from individual words but must be understood as a whole. It means that any substitutions in any components of an idiom or a proverb may result in unacceptable changes in the meaning of the whole group, which make them nonsensical in metaphorical meaning. Apart from this, most idioms and proverbs use language in a metaphorical way. We can not usually discover their meanings by looking up the individual words in a dictionary; their meaning must be understood metaphorically. Beside those similarities, both of them still own typical features that distinguish one from the other. The first and most obvious difference lies in their grammatical structures. Idioms are phrases which are parts of sentences; thus, they are equivalent to words only. Proverbs are complete sentences or phrases expressing the whole idea. Moreover, idioms and proverbs are also different in terms of their functions. Proverbs are short well-known sentences or phrases that express a judgment, state a general truth about life or advice; they are told to contain three main literature functions which are perceptive function, aesthetic function and educational function. For example, the proverb Money makes the mare go demonstrates a remark as well as a criticism about the negative side of money. Its perceptive function is to make people aware of the bad effect of money which can become the power dominating the society, even the most inanimate things. The educational function is to criticize the negative side of money and urges people to be aware of that ill effect. And its aesthetic function is to exaggerate in a picturesque way to help readers understand the proverb easily. In contrast, idioms do not express judgments, give advice or state general truth about life, which means they do not have functions of perception and education but only aesthetic function. For example, the idiom to eat like a horse merely describe the strong ability of eating because of great hunger in figurative and imaginary way and does not point out any educational lesson or knowledge of life. In short, beside their common things, idioms are distinguished from proverbs by their structures and functions. 2.4. Summary Although English and Vietnamese idioms have some different features about structures, meanings, functions as well as origins, they both have some similarities as follows: Idioms are fixed groups of words which are firm in terms of their structures and lexical components. Idioms are complete and figurative in terms of meanings which do not come from the meanings of their individual components. Idioms have their own expressiveness. Grammatically, idioms are usually groups of words, sometimes sentences. Idioms are semantically considered as words or groups of words. The function of idioms is naming things, phenomena, processes, properties, etc. Both English and Vietnamese idioms can be classified due to parts of speech, topics or origins. However, Idiom categories basing on their grammatical functions are quite common. Each group of idioms has its own grammatical function and can form sentences. This is the reason why idioms can function as words. Idioms in both languages are quite multiform and flexible. Therefore, we can not understand idioms clearly without understanding the culture of each country. Idioms in both English and Vietnamese are very different from other language units. These differences are summarized in Table 1 Table 1: Idioms versus other language units Features Idioms Words Locutions Slang Proverbs Structure fixed groups of words or sentences morphemes or words groups of words words or fixed groups of words sentences Relationship among components close, fixed, available independent (single words), close/ lax (compound words) close, fixed, available close, fixed, fashionable close, fixed, available Meaning figurative literal literal figurative generalized Nominative function naming things, phenomena, processes, properties… naming things, phenomena, processes, properties… naming things, phenomena, processes, properties… naming accounts, events… Syntactic function forming sentences forming sentences forming sentences forming sentences sentences used independently Expression pure concepts pure concepts saying with a smooth tongue, taking verbal precautions, connecting or emphasizing ideas pure concepts communiqué, conclusion, truth, experience… CHAPTER III: IDIOMATIC VARIANTS AND SYNONYMOUS IDIOMS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 3.1. Lexical synonymy In the language system, all the language units are closely connected and define by regulations each other. In order to study these, a connective form of the language units is taken out and given a look separated from the scope of other connections. One of the most basic connective forms of the language units is synonymy. The language unit that expresses synonymous attribute by far the most clearly is the lexicon system, including idioms synonymically connected with each other. Synonymy (synonymia in ancient Egyptian) means “the same name” and displays the relationship between two expressions which are literal but not identical. Literality is the correspondence or something in the same denotatum (events, objects), or something in the same significance (something displayed belongs to the language). In other word, expression A and expression B are synonymous if their outsides are not the same (form A is different from form B) but their insides are the same (content A = content B). Synonymous units including synonymous words and idioms are the exceptions of the synonymous expressions. Therefore, synonymous idioms can be realized by the following formula: Synonymy Form A ≠ Form B Content A = Content B e.g. English Form A ≠ Form B not to turn a hair without turning a hair Content A = Content B almost, nearly Vietnamese Form A ≠ Form B dạy đĩ vén váy (to teach the dog to bark) dạy khỉ leo cây (to teach the dog to bark) Content A = Content B to do something unnecessary When studying synonymy, they usually deal with lexical and grammatical synonymy. Lexical synonymy is the synonymy of words (words and equivalent units including idioms). Idioms are language units functioning as words; however, they are formed by many lexical words. Therefore, the synonymous idioms are more complex than the synonyms of words because they are connected with the idiomatic variants. In many cases, it is difficult to distinguish those phenomena clearly. e.g. English Vietnamese to die a dog’s death – to die like a dog not to turn a hair – without turning a hair to be head over ears in – to be over head and ears in bữa đực bữa cái – buổi đực buổi cái (day on day off) mua quan bán tước – mua danh bán tước (to buy and sell status) tránh vỏ dưa gặp vỏ dừa – tránh được lợn cỏ gặp gấu chó… (to jump out of the frying pan into the fire) 3.2. Idiomatic variants in English and Vietnamese Idiomatic variants are available in both English and Vietnamese. However, the forms and contents of idiomatic variants in each language are different. 3.2.1. Idiomatic variants in English It is easy to realize that the components, especially verbs and nouns, of an English idiom can be replaced by units which are synonymous or belong to the same field of meaning. For example, the verb get in the idiom to get one’s back up can be replaced by the verb put, but the meaning of the idiom is still the same. We can see this in a lot of idioms such as to get one’s blood up – to have one’s blood up, to welcome with open arms – to greet with open arms, and to find the length of someone’s feet – to know the length of someone feet which are idiomatic variants. The idiomatic variants in English are the other forms of idioms whose meanings are the same as the original idioms. In other word, when one (or more components) of the original idiom is (are) replaced by another (other components) belonging to the same field of meaning, we consider this the idiomatic variant. These can be concretized as follows: - A verb (a verb phrase) replaced by another belonging to the same field of meaning: to get one’s back up – to set one’s back up – to put one’s back up etc. - A noun (a noun phrase) replaced by another belonging to the same field of meaning: to take into one’s head – to take into one’s mind etc. - An adverb replaced by another belonging to the same field of meaning: to come apart – to come asunder etc. - A conjunction replaced by another belonging to the same field of meaning: to make as if – to make as though etc. - An adjective replaced by another belonging to the same field of meaning: to have a great mind to – to have a good mind to etc. In addition, like words, English idioms can form sentences; therefore, some components of the idioms such as possessive adjectives, objects of personal pronouns can themselves change in order to keep the agreement among the components in the sentences. 3.2.2. Idiomatic variants in Vietnamese Ju.X. Xtepannov said that phonetic deformation of words was limited by synonyms. This means that forms of words are changed while their meanings are still the same. That a word is pronounced in two ways makes two phonetic variants. [31: 42] It can be said that idiomatic variants are different forms of the same idioms. It means that the form of an idiom has changed but its meaning is still the same. That the components of an idiom are replaced by the others, or that the order of the components of an idiom changes makes the different forms of an idiom. Idioms having phonetic variants are considered as idiomatic variants: chôn nhau cắt rốn – chôn rau cắt rốn (birth-place); bày binh bố trận – bài binh bố trận (to dispose troops in battle-array); buồn như trấu cắn – buồn như chấu cắn (very sad); ân sâu nghĩa nặng – ơn sâu nghĩa nặng (to entertain a feeling of gratitude deep in one’s heart); bắt mũi chưa sạch – vắt mũi chưa sạch (to look like a spring chicken); năm châu bốn bể - năm châu bốn biển (all the world) etc. That the order of the components of an idiom is not the same also makes idiomatic variants: mật ít ruồi nhiều – ruồi nhiều mật it (Little supply much demand); to gan lớn mật - lớn mật to gan (to have plenty of guts); da mồi tóc bạc – tóc bạc da mồi (silver hair and spotted skin); chân trong chân ngoài – chân ngoài chân trong (half-hearted); dãi nắng dầm mưa – dầm mưa dãi nắng (to be exposed to the sun); năm châu bốn bể - bốn bể năm châu (all the world); gạo chợ nước sông – nước sông gạo chợ (to live from hand to mouth); cá chậu chim lồng – chim lồng cá chậu (behind prison bars) etc. When the components of an idiom are replaced by units which are synonymous or belong to the same field of meaning, we also call these idiomatic variants: dữ như hùm – dữ như cọp (ferocious like a tiger); cùng hội cùng thuyền – đồng hội đồng thuyền (to share the same lot); binh hùng tướng mạnh – quân hùng tướng mạnh (a strong army); giả mù giả điếc – giả đui giả điếc (to pretend to be deaf and dumb); vẽ đường cho hươu chạy – vạch đường cho hươu chạy (to teach the dog to bark); cơm dẻo canh ngọt – cơm ngon canh ngọt – cơm lành canh ngọt (good meals); chua như mẻ - chua như dấm (sour like vinegar); dãi nắng dầm mưa – dãi gió dầm mưa – dãi gió dầm sương – dãi gió dầu mưa (to be exposed to the sun); dạn dày nắng mưa – dạn dày sương gió – dạn dày gió sương (to be used to the hard weather) etc. Vietnamese idiomatic variants are quite multiform and complicated. How they are expressed depends on the speakers’ habits in different parts of country. Basing on what given above, it can be said that the variation limitations of words are synonymy. Therefore, the variation limitations of idioms are synonymous idioms. 3.3. Synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese Although English and Vietnamese are two different languages, synonymous idioms in both are available. 3.3.1. Synonymous idioms in English It can be said that synonyms are different words with identical or at least similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. Synonyms can be any parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are same part of speech. In English many synonyms evolved from a mixture of Norman French and English words, often with some words associated with the Saxon countryside (“folk”, “freedom”) and synonyms with the Norman nobility (“people”, “liberty”). Two idioms are said to be synonymous if they have different structures but the same meanings. not to turn a hair (verbal phrase) and without turning a hair (prepositional phrase) are synonymous idioms. This kind of synonymous idioms is not very common in English. However, it is very popular in Vietnamese. In English when a preposition of an idiom is replaced by another but its meaning is the same, it can be considered as a synonymous idiom: to escape by the skin of one’s teeth – to escape with the skin of one’s teeth, to be beyond belief – to be past belief, to be down in health – to be down at health etc. As we know, idioms are the language units which are about the same as words. Therefore, they are able to be synonymous with words. Two idioms are also said to be synonymous idioms if they have different components belonging to different fields of meaning, but their meanings are the same. For example, the following idioms are synonymous with each other although they have different meaning colours: Bases Synonymous idioms as drunk as as drunk as a fish as drunk as a lord as drunk as a skunk to swear like to swear like a trooper to swear like a bargee as busy as as busy as a heaver as busy as a bee 3.3.2. Synonymous idioms in Vietnamese In Vietnam, Do Huu Chau has partly referred to the synonymous idioms. He said “The idioms which are about the same as words are mainly synonymous, colorific and descriptive”. [7] It can be said that idioms are the language units which are about the same as words. Therefore, they are able to be synonymous with words. For example, the following idioms are synonymous with their bases; however, each of these idioms has its own meaning specifying different colors of its common root meaning: Bases Synonymous idioms chậm (slow) chậm như rùa (at a snail’s pace) chậm như sên… nhanh (fast) nhanh như sóc (as fast as a squirrel) nhanh như ăn cướp nhanh như cắt nhanh như chớp nhanh như gió nhanh như điện… đen (black) đen như mực tàu (inky-black) đen như cột nhà cháy đen như củ súng đen như đồng hun đen như củ tam thất đen như quạ… It is easy to realize that idioms are usually used in sayings belonging to informal language; therefore, they are the language units belonging to this style. Idioms belonging to formal language are not very common. They are usually idioms coming from Sino. For example, Vo Nguyen Giap, in his Từ nhân dân mà ra, wrote “Quân giải phóng là một đội quân rất trọng kỷ luật, tuyệt đối phục tùng thượng lệnh, là một đội quân giàu tinh thần đoàn kết, đồng cam cộng khổ (to share the hard work with each other)”. Meanwhile, words including bases synonymizing idioms created usually have neutral colors. This can be shown as the following examples: Meaning Synonymous idioms đen (black) đen như mực tàu (inky-black) đen như cột nhà cháy đen như củ súng đen như đồng hun đen như củ tam thất đen như quạ… đoàn kết (solidarity) đồng cam cộng khổ (to share the hard work with each other)… keo kiệt (meanness) vắt cổ chày ra nước (to be a skinflint) rán sành ra mỡ… Words and synonymous idioms can make a clear distinction between them about their meaning colours. For example, in Vietnamese đen (black) normally means “like the colour of coal” or “the colour of ‘mực tàu’ (Indian ink)”. They can be used for all objects. However, it has different meaning colours in the following idioms relating to the colours of complexion. Idioms Meaning Meaning colours Đen như cột nhà cháy black as black as the colour of a house pole burnt Đen như đồng hun black as black as the colour of a piece of bronze smoked Đen như củ súng black as black as the colour of a tuber of lotus Each of synonymous idioms has its own meaning color. It is easy to realize that the meaning color of each synonymous idiom comes from the images originally creating idioms. Therefore, we can consider idioms and their synonymous words as notional synonymous units. It means that units expressing the same notion or the same fact do not only have different figurative styles but also different meaning colors. e.g. Synonymous idioms Meaning colours Styles nước đổ đầu vịt (like water off a duck’s back) negative informal nước đổ lá khoai (like water off a duck’s back) neutral formal Linguists have affirmed that in language there are no absolute synonymous words; therefore, there are no absolute synonymous idioms. Moreover, synonymous idioms are created from different images. It means that each synonymous idiom has its own image. That they are not the same is obvious. 3.4. Syntactic and idiomatic synonymy It can be said that lexicological and syntactic synonyms are diminutive unitive synonymous systems of language. The basis to determine synonymous words and idioms are the similar and different properties. The similarities and differences of lexical synonymous units are dialectical because they express the different images of the same phenomenon. Words and idioms are synonymous with each other because the express the same notions or the same phenomena of the objective reality. However, they are different because they have different meaning colors, styles and fields of using (universal, local, professional etc). Basing on the similar and different properties of words and idioms, syntactic synonymy can be clearly analyzed. It is affirmed that the similar and different properties of syntactic synonymous units are the dialectical identicalness of different respects belonging to the same aspect of study – syntactic aspect. As we know, one of the criteria usually used to identify the synonymy is the possibility of replacing one language unit by another. However, not all words replaced by other are synonymous and syntactic means is not an exception. Therefore, it is syntactically necessary to give the principles of fixing group of words, sentence, similar or synonymous sentence element when it is alone or not. [27: 103] Some researchers have shown that syntactic synonymous units must have different structures. [27: 111] Therefore, synonymous idioms also have different structures although they have the same meanings in general. Idioms having the same meanings and structures may be variants of idioms. When idioms are considered as synonymous idioms of other, the components of these idioms must belong to different fields of lexicon. e.g. English Vietnamese not to turn a hair – without turning a hair chuột gặm chân mèo – vuốt râu hùm (to beard the lion in his den) to wrap someone around one’s little finger – to have someone at one’s beck and call đắp tai gài chốc – mũ ni che tai (Turning a deaf ear to everything) to face the music – to wake up and smell the coffee dưỡng hổ dị hoạ - nuôi ong tay áo (to set a fox to keep one’s geese) M.F. Palepskaia, a Russian linguist, made a clear distinction between syntactic synonyms and syntactic variants. She showed that syntactic structures including sentences and parts of sentences are different because of their lexical elements. She considered them as syntactic synonyms. Structures expressing the same content are syntactic variants. M.F. Palepskaia also gave a definition about syntactic synonymous units. Her definition can be expressed as follows: syntactic synonymous units are different structures having the same grammatical positions and contents. They are different because of their original meaning colours coming from grammatical meanings changed. [27: 128]. Basing on this, we can make a clear distinction between synonyms and variants of idioms in both English and Vietnamese. In Vietnamese, Nguyen Huu Chuong, in his doctorate thesis, gave 4 minor types of pragmatic synonymous sentences and 18 minor types of semantic synonymous sentences. (Appendix 1) We only focus on semantic synonymous sentences because they relate to idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms. 3.5. Criteria for the distinction between idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms In both English and Vietnamese, in order to make a clear distinction between idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms, we focus on two criteria: meanings and grammatical structures. Meanings are based on the same or different images. Grammatical structures are based on the same or different structures. The differences between idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms can be shown as follows: (Diagram 1, 2) Diagram 1: Idiomatic variants - same meanings - same structures - same images Idiomatic variants Idioms e.g. English Vietnamese to take into one’s head to take into one’s mind… ngồi như bụt mọc ngồi như bụt ốc (to sit in silence and do nothing) - same meanings - different structures Diagram 2: Synonymous idioms Synonymous idioms - same meanings - same structures - different images Idioms e.g. English Vietnamese to have a head on one’s shoulders – to have one’s head screwed on the right way… dở trăng dở đèn – dơi không ra dơi, chuột không ra chuột – nửa nạc nửa mỡ (half-serious)… as angry as a bear – as angry as a bull… rối như canh hẹ - rối như gà mắc tóc – rối như mớ bong bong – rối như ruột tằm (to be in a stir)… Basing on two criteria above, we can make a clear distinction between idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms as follows: Idioms are considered as variants of each other when they have the same meanings and grammatical structures or have different components belonging to the same field of meaning. Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have the same meanings but different structures or have the same structures but different components belonging to different fields of meaning. 3.6. Forms of idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese 3.6.1. Forms of idiomatic variants As we know, idioms are considered as variants of each other when they have the same meanings and grammatical structures or have different components belonging to the same field of meaning. Basing on these criteria, we can realize idiomatic variants through their forms as follows: 3.6.1.1. Phonetic idiomatic variants In English, it seems that there are no phonetic idiomatic variants because English articulate system is very close and fixed. However, in Vietnamese it is not difficult to find out phonetic idiomatic variants such as trở/ giở mặt như bàn tay (change about), ân/ ơn sâu nghĩa nặng (to entertain a feeling of gratitude deep in one’s heart), buồn như chấu/ trấu cắn (very sad), chôn rau/ nhau cắt rốn (native place), gà trống/ sống nuôi con (a cock with chicks to raise), giơ cao đánh sẽ/ khẽ (long mint little dint), trường/ tràng giang đại hải (lenghthy), dát/ nhát như cáy (as timid as a rabbit) etc. It is clear that the meanings of phonetic idiomatic variants in Vietnamese are the same and they also have the same meaning colours. Nevertheless, they have different style colours. For example, nhát như cáy is neutral and formal, but dát như cáy is negative and informal. The following examples make it clearer: “Con người nhát như cáy, bỗng chốc trở lên dũng cảm khác thường, một mình luồn qua lưới địch tìm bộ đội, có thể tin được không?” (Lê Khâm, ‘Bên kia biên giới’) “Giọng ông cụ hỏi sẵng, dường như lại bực vợ: Bà chỉ được cái dát như cáy. Chúng nó giết ngay bây giờ đấy.” (Quang Tiến, ‘Làng Tề’) 3.6.1.2. Idiomatic variants basing on the change of their component orders This kind of variants is very rare in English, but it is quite common in Vietnamese. These idiomatic variants have their own different forms: Form 1: ABCD = CDAB These idiomatic variants consist of four syllables. It means that they are phrases consisting of two disyllabic coordinate compound words. e.g. ABCD CDAB chén thù chén tạc (Toasts exchanged in a drinking about) chức trọng quyền cao (high office and great power) chạy ngược chạy xuôi… (to move heaven and earth) chén tạc chén thù quyền cao chức trọng chạy xuôi chạy ngược… Semantically, disyllabic compound words in the idiomatic variants above refer to phenomena which usually go together. When these phenomena are used together, they become idioms having general meanings. Although these idiomatic variants have different forms, they have the same meaning and style colours as their base idioms. However, how often they are used is sometimes different. For example, the idiomatic variants such as chia loan rẽ phượng (to separate two lovers) and cửa Khổng sân Trình (The Confucianist School) are more popular whereas chia phượng rẽ loan (to separate two lovers) and sân Trình cửa Khổng (The Confucianist School) are not very often used. Form 2: AxBy = AyBx These idiomatic variants consist of four syllables. In other word, they are phrases consisting two disyllabic compound words. Form 2 is different from form 1 because only one component in form 2 changes its position. e.g. AxBy AyBx lòng cá dạ chim (to have a mean heart) dạn gió dày sương (to be used to the hard weather) xa chạy cao bay… (to run away) lòng chim dạ cá dày gió dạn sương cao chạy xa bay… Form 3: AxAy = AyAx As can be seen from form 3, these idiomatic idioms also consist of four syllables. They are phrases in which a single word is twice used with a disyllabic coordinate word. e.g. AxAy AyAx nói vượn nói hươu (to palaver) nở mặt nở mày (to feel proud) kể khoan kể nhặt (to spin a long yarn) chết dở sống dở (to be in a fix) chịu khó chịu thương… (to take pains) nói hươu nói vượn nở mày nở mặt kể nhặt kể khoan sống dở chết dở chịu thương chịu khó… In addition, beside the forms above, Vietnamese idiomatic variants have three special forms as follows: - Four syllables idioms coming from Sino are Vietnamized and become Vietnamese idioms: Hà Đông sư tử - sư tử Hà Đông (a tigress). - Idioms having subject - predicate - complement forms changed into complement - predicate - subject ones are also considered as idiomatic variants: xương bọc da – da bọc xương (a bag of bones). - Idioms having “như X với Y” forms changed into “như Y với X” ones are idiomatic variants: như nước với lửa – như lửa với nước (fire and water). 3.6.1.3. Contractive idiomatic variants and the contrary In English this kind of idiomatic variants is rare. It sometimes appears on the mass media. They no longer keep the full form of the idiom but add some more components to make it more vivid, particularly effective when writing articles. There are two kinds of contractive idiomatic variants in Vietnamese: - Idiomatic variants are contractions of their base idioms: e.g. Base idioms Contractive idiomatic variants treo đầu dê bán thịt chó (He cries wine and sells vinegar) lợn lành chữa thành lợn què (A remedy is worse than disease) lung búng như ngậm hột thị… (to sputter) treo dê bán chó lợn lành thành lợn què như ngậm hột thị… - Idiomatic variants come from their contractive base idioms: e.g. Contractive base idioms Idiomatic variants dai như đỉa (as tough as old boots) đội trời đạp đất (to get complete free hand in one’s life and action) lên như diều (to get quick promotions) dai như đỉa đói đầu đội trời chân đạp đất lên như diều gặp gió These variants are usually used in specific contexts; therefore, they are easy to understand and restore their base idioms. 3.6.1.4. Idiomatic variants coming from idioms of other languages English idioms can be formed by using borrowings as their components. The idiom Saigon moment is an example in which Saigon is a borrowing coming from Vietnamese. However, idiomatic variants coming from idioms of other languages are not available in English. In Vietnamese, there are a lot of idiomatic variants coming from idioms of other languages, especially Sino. In order to make it easy to understand, Sino idioms are Vietnamized and have Vietnamese meaning colours. e.g. Sino Idioms Idiomatic variants binh địa ba đào (An upheaval happening during a calm) quốc sắc thiên hương… (beauty) đất bằng nổi sóng sắc nước hương trời… In general, the meanings of these idiomatic variants are similar to those of their Sino idioms Vietnamized. However, Sino idioms Vietnamized are more general and formal than their variants. This is the reason why Sino idioms Vietnamized are usually used in books. 3.6.1.5. Idiomatic variants with their components replaced by synonyms In both English and Vietnamese, these idiomatic variants are available. However, they are more common in Vietnamese. In English the components of idioms are usually replaced by others whose meanings are close. Meanwhile, the components of Vietnamese idioms can be replaced by synonyms or others whose meanings are close. e.g. English Vietnamese to come apart – to come asunder to have a great mind to – to have a good mind to to get wise to someone/ something – to be wise to someone/ something… mát lòng mát dạ - mát lòng mát ruột (to be gratified at) nắm đằng cán – nắm đằng chuôi (to be on the safe side) bày mưu tính kế - bày mưu lập kế… (to devise stratagems and contrive tricks) The meanings of these idiomatic variants are similar to those of their idioms. Nevertheless, their style colours and frequencies of using are sometimes different. It is clear that base idioms are more used and common than their variants. 3.6.1.6. Idiomatic variants with their components replaced by words or expressions having the same lexical-semantic field When the components of idioms are replaced by other words or expressions belonging to the same lexical-semantic field, they are considered as idiomatic variants. These idiomatic variants are available in both English and Vietnamese. e.g. English Vietnamese there is no stopping someone – there is no holding someone to get a share of the cake – to get a slice of the cake to give it to someone – to hand it to someone… lòng lang dạ thú – lòng lang dạ sói (to have a mean heart) ăn no vác nặng – ăn no gánh nặng (to eat to satiety and carry a heavy load) chiêm khê mùa thối – chiêm khê mùa úng… (affected by drought in summer and waterlogged in autumn) In general, the frequencies of using idiomatic variants and their base idioms in English are the same. In addition, the meaning and style colours of English idiomatic variants are similar to those of their base idioms. However, these are not the same in Vietnamese. It means that their pragmatic meanings are different. For example, that we can say nắng như đổ lửa, nắng như hầm, or nắng như thiêu (a scorching sun) depends on how hot it is. Basing on the meanings and the forms of idiomatic variants and their base idioms with their components replaced by words or expressions having the same lexical-semantic field, we can consider this kind of idiomatic variants as an intermediary between variation and synonymy. 3.6.2. Forms of synonymous idioms Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have the same meanings but different structures or have the same structures but different components belonging to different fields of meaning. In order to realize synonymous idioms, we focus on two criteria: meanings and grammatical structures. Meanings are based on the same or different images. Grammatical structures are based on the same or different structures. These two criteria also help us realize synonymous idioms in both English and Vietnamese as follows: 3.6.2.1. Figurative and literal synonymous idioms These synonymous idioms are quite common in Vietnamese but not available in English. Two idioms are said to be synonymous when they have the same meanings (this one is figurative, and the other is literal). e.g. Figurative Literal ăn thừa nói thiếu (to be dishonest) ăn đơm nói đặt (to be dishonest) ăn sóng nói gió (to speak loud and openly) cố đấm ăn xôi… (to put one’s pride in one’s pocket for the sake of one’s end) ăn gian nói dối ăn không nói có ăn to nói lớn cố sống cố chết… 3.6.2.2. Synonymous idioms having the same figurative meanings basing on different images These synonymous idioms are available in both English and Vietnamese. Idioms having different grammatical structures or different components basing on different images, but the same meanings are said to be synonymous. e.g. English Vietnamese to have a head on one’s shoulders – to have one’s head screwed on the right way as busy as a heaver – as busy as a bee… ghi lòng tạc dạ - nhớ như đinh đóng vào cột (to engrave for ever on one’s heart) chạy như cờ lông công – chạy ngược chạy xuôi (to be in a bustle) rán sành ra mỡ – vắt cổ chày ra nước (to skin a flint)… 3.7. Appearances of idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese An investigation was carried out among 100 pairs of English idioms having the same meanings adapted by chance from Pocket English Idioms written by Jennifer Seidl – W. McMordie in 1988. (Appendix 2) We also investigated 100 pairs of Vietnamese idioms having the same meanings adapted by chance from Thành ngữ tiếng Việt (Vietnamese Idioms) written by Nguyen Luc and Luong Van Dang in 1978. (Appendix 3) The purpose of the investigation was to discover the amount of idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in both English and Vietnamese. Basing on this, we found out how idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms appear in each language. The main findings are in Table 2 Table 2: Appearances of idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese Language Total (pairs) Idiomatic variants Synonymous idioms English 100 (100%) 46 (46%) 54 (54%) Vietnamese 100 (100%) 65 (65%) 35 (35%) The table shows that the idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English are quite equal. Idiomatic variants are 46% and 54% are synonymous idioms. However, in Vietnamese Idiomatic variants are much more common than synonymous idioms. Among 100 pairs of Vietnamese idioms having the same meanings, 65% are idiomatic variants, and synonymous idioms are only 35%. In general, synonymous idioms in English are much more common than those in Vietnamese. In contrary, Vietnamese idiomatic variants are more common than English ones. It can be said that both English and Vietnamese people tend to use different idioms having the same meanings in their everyday conversations. However, how often they use these idioms depends on their habits and points of view in each country. 3.8. Summary Although there are some similarities such as multiform meaning colours, sentence forming abilities and distinction criteria, idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in both languages have some differences: In English, the order of the components of an idiom is fixed. However, in Vietnamese we can see that the order of the components of some idioms can change but their meanings are the same such as nếm mật nằm gai – nằm gai nếm mật (to endure hardships and achieve a lofty arm); da mồi tóc bạc – tóc bạc da mồi (having spedkled skin and hoary hair); góc bể chân trời – chân trời góc bể (to the ends of the earth) etc. They are considered as idiomatic variants. In Vietnamese, idioms having phonetic variants are considered as idiomatic variants such as chôn nhau cắt rốn – chôn rau cắt rốn (birth place); bày binh bố trận – bài binh bố trận (to dispose troops in battle-array); buồn như trấu cắn – buồn như chấu cắn (very sad) etc. However, we can not find these in English. In both English and Vietnamese, idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms are quite common. In order to make a clear distinction between them, we focus on two criteria: meanings and grammatical structures. Idioms are considered as variants of each other when they have the same meanings and grammatical structures or have different components belonging to the same field of meaning. Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have the same meanings but different structures or have the same structures but different components belonging to different fields of meaning. Idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms are available in both English and Vietnamese; however, their forms and availabilities in each language are different. These can be summarized in Table 3. Table 3: Forms of idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese Idiomatic variants Forms English Vietnamese Phonetic idiomatic variants not available available Idiomatic variants basing on the change of their component orders available (rare) available Contractive idiomatic variants and the contrary available (rare) available Idiomatic variants coming from idioms of other languages not available available Idiomatic variants with their components replaced by synonyms available available Idiomatic variants with their components replaced by words or expressions having the same lexical-semantic field available available Synonymous idioms Forms English Vietnamese Figurative and literal synonymous idioms not available available Synonymous idioms having the same figurative meanings basing on different images available available In general, base idioms are more used and common than their variants and synonyms. How often they are used depends on specific contexts and speakers’ habits. It can be said that idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in both English and Vietnamese have the same meaning colours but different figurative style colours. Idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in Vietnamese are more complex and multiform than those in English. Both English and Vietnamese people tend to use different idioms having the same meanings in their everyday conversations. Synonymous idioms in English are much more common than those in Vietnamese. In contrary, Vietnamese idiomatic variants are more common than English ones. PART C: CONCLUSION 1. Conclusions In this thesis, the relationship between culture and language is given. Basing on this, the author interprets why idioms are considered as special language units and what their idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms are. The author also gives some criteria to make a clear distinction between idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese. The main findings are as follows: Idioms in both English and Vietnamese are fixed groups of words which have settled forms and figurative meanings and reflect their own nation's cultural values, including material and spiritual values. Although English and Vietnamese idioms have some different features about structures, meanings, functions as well as origins, they both have some similarities: Idioms are fixed groups of words which are firm in terms of their structures and lexical components. Idioms are complete and figurative in terms of meanings which do not come from the meanings of their individual components. Idioms have their own expressiveness. Grammatically, idioms are usually groups of words, sometimes sentences. Idioms are semantically considered as words or groups of words. The function of idioms is naming things, phenomena, processes, properties… Both English and Vietnamese idioms can be classified due to parts of speech, topics or origins. However, Idiom categories basing on their grammatical functions are quite common. Each group of idioms has its own grammatical function and can form sentences. This is the reason why idioms can function as words. Idioms in both languages are quite multiform and flexible. Therefore, we can not understand idioms clearly without understanding the culture of each country. There are some similarities such as multiform meaning colours, sentence forming abilities and distinction criteria; however, idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in both languages have some differences: - In English, the order of the components of an idiom is quite fixed. However, in Vietnamese we can see that the order of the components of some idioms can change easily, but their meanings are the same such as nếm mật nằm gai – nằm gai nếm mật (to endure hardships and achieve a lofty arm); da mồi tóc bạc – tóc bạc da mồi (having spedkled skin and hoary hair); góc bể chân trời – chân trời góc bể (to the ends of the world) etc. They are considered as idiomatic variants. - In Vietnamese, idioms having phonetic variants are considered as idiomatic variants such as chôn nhau cắt rốn – chôn rau cắt rốn (birth-place); bày binh bố trận – bài binh bố trận (to dispose troops in battle-array); buồn như trấu cắn – buồn như chấu cắn (very sad) etc. However, we can not find these in English. In both English and Vietnamese, idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms are quite common. In order to make a clear distinction between them, it is necessary to focus on two criteria: meanings and grammatical structures. - Idioms are considered as variants of each other when they have the same meanings and grammatical structures or have different components belonging to the same field of meaning. - Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have the same meanings but different structures or have the same structures but different components belonging to different fields of meaning. Idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms are available in both English and Vietnamese; however, their forms and appearances in each language are different. Synonymous idioms in English are much more common than those in Vietnamese. In contrary, Vietnamese idiomatic variants are more common than English ones. In general, base idioms are more used and common than their variants and synonyms. How often they are used depends on specific contexts and speakers’ habits. It can be said that idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in both English and Vietnamese have the same meaning colours but different figurative style colours. Idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms in Vietnamese are more complex and multiform than those in English. 2. Implications for teaching and learning English idioms in general and their variants and synonyms in particular Teaching and learning English as well as Vietnamese, to some people, is an easy task, but to some others, it is really a hard-solving problem. The reason for any difficulties facing these people can be various: maybe they lack a “natural ability” or they do not have suitable methods of teaching and learning. However, apart from linguistic competence, the most important factor that affects the effectiveness of teaching and learning English and Vietnamese in general and idioms in particular, as far as the author is concerned, is their cultural awareness and quick-minded and active abilities in applying language knowledge to conversational contexts. Teachers and learners must make themselves master their mother tongue and their country’s culture. Many students even do not have sufficient knowledge of Vietnamese culture and language but still require a good result in their language learning. Obviously, they could never achieve their aims successfully. The teacher must be well aware of this fact and have suitable methods to help students enrich their mother tongue as well as their foreign language linguistically and culturally. Speaking a foreign language is not very difficult, but understanding and using it effectively is not easy. For any languages, one idea can be expressed and understood in many different ways. Idioms are considered as very special language units because they are different from words and expressions. They are phrases where the words together have a meaning that is different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words. This can make idioms hard for ESL students and learners to understand. In order to know how to use idioms effectively in the right situations, teachers have to help learners discover the forms, contents, origins, functions and figurative style colours of idioms. In this study, idiomatic variants and synonymous idioms were grammatically and semantically analyzed quite deeply in both English and Vietnamese. This helps teachers and learners have a further understanding of idioms and suitable methods of teaching and learning. 3. Suggestions for further studies - Idioms are language units functioning as words. They can form sentences and have their own meaning colours. 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