An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotions in English poetic disscourse

cal metaphor is thus based on the variation between something common, standard, default (i.e. a process realized as a clause) and something which is extended from that (i.e. a process realized by some other form, e.g. a noun phrase), and in this sense grammatical metaphor is similar to the traditional type of metaphor looked at above. However, in the case of grammatical metaphor, the two aspects involved in the movement or metaphorical extension no longer refer to lexemes and lexical meanings (as with lexical metaphor). Rather, they refer to grammatical forms, or grammatical means of expression, such as a clause and a nominal group. According to Halliday, grammatical metaphor is conceived as an incongruent realization of a given semantic configuration in the lexicogrammar ( 1985: 321) 4 Classification of grammatical metaphor In general, there are four kinds of grammartical metaphor: ideational (experiential), interpersonal, , logical and. textual. They occur when the usual or ‘congruent’ realization of meaning is given a ‘non congruent’ or metaphorical expression. The ideational grammatical metaphor relates to the experiential meaning, the logical metaphor to the textual meaning and the interpersonal metaphor to the interpersonal meaning. 4.1 Congruent realization of meaning SFL describes the congruent form of representing experience like this: Example 1: Congruent realization of meaning (1) He is furious because his wife has been kidnapped. In the following example we have a more incongruent form of representing reality through a grammatical metaphor: Example 2: Incongruent realization of meaning: grammatical metaphor (2) He is in a flood of anger because his wife has been kidnapped. Why consider this a metaphorical expression? The answer relies on the acceptance of the notion that the congruent form is the unmarked way we represent experience and that the alternative or marked realization is a form of metaphor. Congruent Metaphorical 1. Adjective (Qualifier) Noun (Entity) 2. Verb (Process) Noun (Entity) 3. Verb (Process) Adjective (Qualifier) 4. Adverb (Circumstance) Adjective (Qualifier) 5.Conjunction (Relator) Prepositional Phrase ( Circumstance) Table 2 - Class shift (semantic type) ( Adapted from Halliday 1995) 4.2 Logical grammatical metaphor Logical grammatical metaphor refers to the consideration of meaning in an incongruent way at the level of the organization of the discourse. The most congruent form of joining two ideas is with a conjunction but when conjunctions are realized through processes and nouns allowing for two or more clauses to become one, it is referred as a logical grammatical metaphor. In spoken medium the logico-semantic relations such as cause-effect are more commonly realized by conjunctions. This type of metaphor is called ‘ logical metaphor’ because it involves what Martin (1993) calls ‘buried reasoning’, or the metaphorical realization of the logico-semantic relations such as cause and effect that in a less metaphorical realization would be expressed by the conjunctions. This metaphorical realization of conjunctive relations by processes like ‘resulting’, ‘causing’, ‘depending’, etc. and nominal groups like ‘ classifier’, ‘qualifier’, ‘numerative’ , etc. 4. 3 Ideational grammatical metaphor The examples given in 3, which are repeated here for ease of reference, have been described as illustrating a metaphorical shift from process as clause to process as noun phrase: 1. His failure in the exam surprised me. In the systemic functional model of language, the notion of a ‘process’ belongs to the ideational metafunction: a ‘process’ is one aspect by which we represent and shape the reality we live in as human beings. In the previous section, ‘process’ has been mentioned as complementary to other ideational notions, viz. ‘entity’ and ‘quality’. With these notions in mind, the nature of the metaphors in (1) and (2) can now be further explained. We have seen above that, in Halliday’s view, a process is normally expressed by means of a clause, but it can metaphorically be expressed by means of a noun phrase. What is important is that a noun phrase is also the ‘normal’ (i.e. default, standard) expression of some other ideational type of meaning, viz. an entity. An entity is normally expressed by means of noun phrase: a table, the sun, my sister, joy, eight books. In this sense, in example (1), the form ‘noun phrase’ is borrowed to metaphorically express the meaning of a process, in the same sense as the lexica; in example (4) (repeated here) borrows the lexeme grasp to express the meaning ‘understand’: (4) He didn’t grasp it. The form of a noun phrase can be borrowed to express processes (which are normally realized by means of clauses), but it can also be used metaphorically to express qualities, which are by default encoded by adjectives. In this sense, (6) is a metaphorical variant of (5). (5) She is dishonest. (6) You cannot really count on her honesty. Another common sub-type of ideational metaphor is where a process (normally expressed by means of clause) comes to be expressed by means of an adjective, and thus, comes to be conceived of as a quality instead. Ideational metaphor is a powerful resource in the grammar of a language, by which the expression of ideational meanings such as processes, qualities and entities is extended in important ways beyond their default encodings as clauses, adjectives and nouns (or noun phrases) respectively: different forms can be borrowed to express different meanings. 4.4 .Interpersonal grammatical metaphor The main function of the ideational grammatical metaphor is to condense the information as a way to pack more lexical items in one clause at the expense of deleting the participants and time of the processes, i.e. the ideational grammatical metaphor is a more metaphorical way of expressing the meaning at the level of experience. The interpersonal grammatical metaphor, on the other hand, can be described as a metaphorical way to express interpersonal meanings that are congruently represented in mood and modality choices. The use of this kind of grammatical metaphor is especially important in language as they allow for a more explicit or implicit presence of the writer/speaker in the discourse The interpersonal component of grammar especially concerns the areas of modality and mood. In these two areas, Halliday also distinguishes between basic, non-metaphorical expressions, and metaphorical ones, i.e. inter- personal metaphors. Let us look at each area in turn. A default realization of a modal meaning, for example, a degree of certainty, according to Halliday, is by means of modal elements that occur within the clause that is being modally evaluated. For example, in order to express the likelihood of John having left already, we can use a modal verb such as must (9) and/or a modal adverb such as certainly (10): (9) John must have left (, because the lights are off). (10) John will certainly have left by now. Halliday calls these expressions of modality, which occur within the clause structure itself, the basic type. However, the same meaning of likelihood with a high degree of certainty can also be expressed by adding more elements to the initial clause John + have left. The following examples illustrate just a few possibilities: a. I think John has already left. b. It is very likely that John has already left. c. Everyone believed that John had already left. d. It is clear that John has already left. In each of the examples above, the modal meaning (i.e. a high degree of certainty that something is the case) is expressed by elements which lie outside the original clause, and which are based on particular types of verbs, such as think (a) or believe (c), or particular types of adjectives, such as likely (b) or clear (d). Halliday calls such expressions interpersonal metaphors of modality, because the modal meaning is realized outside the clause (in contrast with the standard encoding by means of modal verbs or adverbs, which lie within the clause structure). In this case, again, the metaphors are based on a borrowing: for example the verb think can be borrowed to express a modal meaning, as in example (a). The second interpersonal area in grammar, according to systemic functional linguistics, is that of mood. In order to understand the notion of interpersonal metaphors of mood, it is necessary to consider, again, what the default types of encoding are. With regard to mood, Halliday distinguishes three major types of interactive functions: statements are expressions which give information, questions are expressions which ask information, and commands are expressions which ask for something to take place. Each of these functions has its standard, default type of encoding: statements are encoded by the declarative, questions by the interrogative, and commands by the imperative, as we have seen in examples (2)–(4) above. The expression of statements and questions is fairly straightforward, but with regard to commands, the situation is different. There is a large variety of expressions that can be used to express the same command: (11) Send your proposal by email, please. (12) a. Could you send your proposal by email, please ? b. I would advise you to send it by email. c. You are kindly requested to send your proposal by email. d. It is recommended that you send your proposal by email. e. It is advisable to send your proposal by email. The examples in (11) are different metaphorical variants of expressing a command that can also be expressed, in its most straightforward, standard way, as an imperative (11). The metaphorical examples in (12) include the interrogative mood type (which is the standard expression of requests for information), and the declarative mood type (which normally, i.e. non-metaphorically, expresses the speech function of giving information). Halliday brings together these various expressions under the heading of the notion of interpersonal metaphor of mood. The reason why these examples are regarded as metaphorical, lies in the fact that they deviate from the standard, most straightforward realization of a command by means of the imperative mood. Their metaphorical nature can be made clear by pointing to the literal meanings that these expressions have. For instance, (12a), at face-value, is basically a request for information: ‘could you send your proposal by email, or couldn’t you’? Similarly, at face-value, (12b) only refers to a statement: I state that I advise something to you. The metaphorical nature of such metaphors of mood is exploited in verbal play. A case in point is the well-known dinner-table example, where someone asks: Can you pass me the salt, please?, and the addressee answers, ‘Yes, I could certainly do that’, without undertaking any further action with regard to the salt. 4.5 Textual grammatical metaphor Halliday (1994) does not include this kind of grammatical metaphor in his stydy. Martin (1992) is the only systemic scholar who deals with metaphor from the textual perspective. He states that “ grammatical metaphor affects both the ideational and textual structure of the clause since it is a tool for organizing text” ( martin in Halliday & Martin 1993: 41) He believes that textual metaphors are logically oriented – they provide source for metaphorical realization of conjunctive relations: Meta-message relation: reason, factor, pointing out ... Text reference: this Negotiating texture: let me begin by... Internal conjunction: A number of reasons, for example, as a result.... 5 Nominalization 5.1 Taking process as thing In the congruent form of realization, a process should be realized by a verb. But in the incongruent form, a process can be represented as a thing, as in: [1a] First, she reviewed how the dorsal fin evolved. [1b] There was a first review of the evolution of the dorsal fin. This kind of metaphor has three functions. First, it can turn a dynamic process into a static entity through recategorization and provides us with a different way of construing the world. Second, it can increase the information load of the nominal group by nominalizing the dynamic process and putting several epithets before the head of the nominal group, and thus succeeds in condensing the information of the clause. Third, it can blur or cover up the actor by using nominalizations. 5.2 Taking quality as thing In the congruent form, quality is realized by adjectives. But in the incongruent form, it can be represented by a noun. That means that the speaker can take quality as thing, as in:[2a] I was not hungry to be free. [2b] I was not born with a hunger to be free. In this type of metaphor, quality can appear in the form of a circumstantial element or a participant. In the meantime, the original carrier can become the epithet of a participant and its role in the clause becomes less important. 3.5.3 Taking assessment as thing In the congruent form, assessment is expressed by modal verbs or modal adverbs. But in the incongruent form, it can be expressed by a noun as in: [3a] I achieved what I could. [3b] I achieved my potential. This kind of metaphor is termed interpersonal metaphor by Halliday. Modal adverbs differ not only in meaning but also in the attitudes taken by the speaker. However, all these modal verbs are colloquial and informal in style. Comparatively speaking, their corresponding nominalizations sound more formal. This difference can result in different interpersonal meanings, which can influence the establishment and maintenance of the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the listener and affect the fulfillment of the goal of the verbal interaction. 6 Verbalization and grammatical metaphor By definition, verbalization refers to the language phenomenon that a non-process is taken as a process. 6.1 Taking temporal relation as process Two types of temporal relation: same time and different time. To express two or more than two events that happen at different time congruently, connectives are used. But this kind of temporal relation can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in: [1a] She left before I arrived. [2b] Her departure preceded my arrival. To express two or more than two events that happen at the same time congruently, connectives are used. But like the different-time type, this kind of temporal relation can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in: [2a] The strike took place last Monday. The party conference was held at the same time.[2b] The strike was timed to coincide with the party conference. To express the same or different time, the congruent forms tend to take the temporal relation as a logical element outside of the transitivity system. The incongruent forms, however, tend to encode this relation as a dynamic process. 6.2 Taking cause-effect relation as process To express cause-effect relation in the congruent way, connectives are used. But this kind of logical meaning can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in:[1a] Because he was careless, a traffic accident occurred. [2b] His carelessness caused a traffic accident. 6. 3 Taking condition as process To express the meaning of condition in the congruent way, connectives are used. But in the incongruent form, this meaning can be realized by verbs as in: [1a] If you have good food, exercises and enough sleep, you will have good health. [2b] Good health depends on good food, exercises and enough sleep. 6. 4 Taking concession as process To express the meaning of concession in the congruent way, connectives are used. But in the incongruent form, verbs can be used instead as in: [1a] I felt he was wrong, although I didn't say so at the time. [2b] My silence didn't mean that I felt he was right. 7 Summary In this paper, we have considered the notion of grammatical metaphor, as it is conceived of in the systemic functional model of language founded by Halliday. We have taken as our starting point the notion of metaphor as it is traditionally known, and re-labelled this notion as ‘lexical metaphor’ because it is concerned with the words, or the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language. Grammatical metaphor, as we have seen, can be explained in relation to lexical metaphor: it is based on the same metaphorical movement, but it is rooted in the grammar of a language, and thus exploits the grammatical resources of a language. Taking into account the general organization of these resources into different large metafunctions that language serves, we have seen how Halliday distinguished between ideational metaphors, which have to do with alternative ways of construing reality, and interpersonal metaphor, which offer alternative possibilities of expressing modal meanings (metaphors of modality), or exchanging commands (metaphors of mood). We also review how logical metaphor and textual metaphor are realized by Halliday and Martin. We conclude that: Grammatical metaphor is “a principle in which meanings may be cross-coded, phenomena represented by catergories other than those that evolve to present them” ( Halliday 1994). Lexical metaphor and grammatical metaphor are not two different phenomena; they are both aspects of the metaphorical strategy by which we expand our semantic resources for construing experience. Two types of realization between grammar and semantics are referred to as congruent and metaphorical. Grammatical metaphor can be classified into logical, experiential, interpersonal and textual metaphor. Nominalization and verbalization are essential in creating grammatical metaphor. In the chapter 3 we will explore how grammatical metaphor as a linguistic resource works in the description of emotion in English poetry. In the next session we will clear the concept of emotion ,metaphor emotion, and emotion in poetry. III. EMOTION AND POETRY 1 Introduction No aspect of our mental life is more important to the quality and meaning of our existence than emotions. They are what make life worth living, or sometimes ending. So it is not surprising that most of the great classical philosophers--Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Descartes, Hobbes, Hume--had recognizable theories of emotion, conceived as responses to certain sorts of events of concern to a subject, triggering bodily changes and typically motivating characteristic behavior. What is surprising is that in much of the twentieth-century philosophers of mind and psychologists tended to neglect them--perhaps because the sheer variety of phenomena covered by the word "emotion" and its closest neighbors tends to discourage tidy theory. In recent years, however, emotions have once again become the focus of vigorous interest in philosophy, as well as in other branches of cognitive science. In view of the proliferation of increasingly fruitful exchanges between researches of different stripes, it is no longer useful to speak of the philosophy of emotion in isolation from the approaches of other disciplines, particularly psychology, neurology and evolutionary biology. While it is quite impossible to do justice to those approaches here, some sidelong glances in their direction will aim to suggest their philosophical importance. 2 Basic emotion Most emotions have an intentional structure: we shall need to say something about what that means. Psychology and more recently evolutionary biology have offered a number of theories of emotions, stressing their function in the conduct of life. Philosophers have been especially partial to cognitivist theories, emphasizing analogies either with propositional judgments or with perception. But different theories implicitly posit different ontologies of emotion, and there has been some dispute about what emotions really are, and indeed whether they are any kind of thing at all. Emotions also raise normative questions: about the extent to which they can be said to be rational, or can contribute to rationality. In that regard the question of our knowledge of our own emotions is especially problematic, as it seems they are both the object of our most immediate awareness and the most powerful source of our capacity for self-deception. This results in a particularly ambivalent relation between emotions and morality. Traditionally, the three most common axes of the definition of emotion are: expression/ behaviour, physiological arousal, and subjective experience (Izard 1990; Myers 1989; Waters 1992). The splitting of evidence of emotions into physiological arousal, expression/ behaviour, and subjective experience allows different theorists to privilege one aspect over another, and this privileging is evident in most emotion theory in one way or another. Although there has been some debate over what the necessary and sufficient components of emotion are (Lazarus 1991; Clore & Ortony 1991), most theorists admit evidence from each of these categories, despite their stance on which is more primary. In recent years, some of other theories have been developed: James-Lange" theory of emotion (1884), Cognitive approach (Robert Solomon (1980), Jerome Neu (2000), Martha Nussbaum (2001) (Marks 1982), (Broad 1971; Lyons 1980), and (Oakley 1992), perceptual approach(Nussbaum 1990, Thomas 1989). However, there has not been any of these which is universally accepted and the choice of one of these definition depends on researchers and the field they involve. In this study we would like to introduce the definition by Kleinginna (1981): "Emotion is a complex set of interactions among subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can: (a) give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure; (b) generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual effects, appraisals, labeling processes; (c)activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions; and (d) lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal directed, and adaptive" (Kleinginna 1981 p. 355). In the end, let us introduce the basic emotion introduced by Ortony and Turner (1990) and reinforced by Karin Sandstrom (2006) in the table below: Chart 4 : Basic emotion by Karin Sandstrom (2006) (Source: Linguistics in the Midnight Sun, report No 3) There is a notice that Karin has added fear as the sixth element of emotion in comparison with five ones by Ortony and Johnson ( sadness, happiness, love, anger, hate) 3 Emotion metaphor Before we continue, let us not forget that: “One of the major functions of metaphor is to express emotion” (Goatly 1997: 158). Emotion metaphors form an extensive group in the taxonomy of metaphors. The table below can summarize the conventional emotion metaphor. ( See next page) Metaphor +HAPPY-AS-UP+ ex. Myspiritsrose foremotions metaphor Metaphor for Metaphor for +ANGER-AS-BURDEN+ ex. He carries hisanger around with him. aspects of anger anger +ANGER-AS-DANGEROUS-ANIMAL+ ex. He unleashed hisanger. +ANGER-AS-FIRE+ex. What you said inflamed him. +ANGER-AS-HOT-CONTAINED-FLUID+ ex. You make myblood boil. +ANGER-AS-OPPONENT+ ex. I’ve been wrestlingwith myanger. +ANGER-AS-STORM+ ex. He thunderedwith rage. cause of anger +CAUSING-ANGER-AS-TRESPASSING+ ex. Leave mealone! Metaphor for Metaphor for +LUST-AS-HEAT+ex. She is an oldflame. aspects of aspects of +LUST-AS-HUNGER+ ex. Sheis quite adish. romanticlove sexualdesire +LUST-AS-INSANITY+ ex. I’m crazy in love with her. +LUST-AS-WAR+ ex. He’s known for his conquests. +LUSTFUL-PERSON-AS-ANIMAL+ ex.He’s a realstud. +SEXUALITY-AS-A-PHYSICAL-FORCE+ ex. We were drawn toeach other. Metaphor for +LOVE-AS-PATIENT+ ex. Theyhavea strong, healthy marriage. love +LOVE-AS-PHYSICAL-FORCE+ ex. His wholelife revolves around her. +LOVE-AS-BOND+ ex. There issomething between them. +LOVE-AS-CAPTIVE-ANIMAL+ ex. She letgo of herfeelings. +LOVE-AS-COMMODITY+ ex. I gaveher all mylove. +LOVE-AS-FIRE+ ex.My heart’son fire. +LOVE-AS-FLUID-IN-CONTAINER+ ex. Shewasfilledwithlove. +LOVE-AS-HIDDEN-OBJECT+ ex. You’reluckyto have found her. +LOVE-AS-INSANITY+ ex. I’m crazy about her. +LOVE-AS-JOURNEY+ ex. I don’tthink this relationshipis going anywhere. +LOVE-AS-MAGIC+ex.She is bewitching. +LOVE-AS-NATURAL-FORCE+ ex.She sweptme off myfeet. +LOVE-AS-NUTRIENT+ ex. She’sstarvedfor affection. +LOVE-AS-OPPONENT+ex. She wasovercome by love. +LOVE-AS-RAPTURE+ ex. I amgiddy with love. +LOVE-AS-UNITY+ ex. Wewere made foreach other. +LOVE-AS-WAR+ ex.Hemade anally of hermother. Metaphor for +BELOVED-AS-APPETIZING-FOOD+ ex. Honey, you look great today! lovers +BELOVED-AS-DEITY+ ex. He worshipsthe ground she walkson. +BELOVED-AS-VALUABLE-OBJECT+ ex. We have toleave now,my dear. +LOVERS-AS-DOVES+ ex. It was alllovey-dovey. Metaphor for +BODY-AS-CONTAINER-FOR-EMOTIONS+ ex. He wasfilledwith anger. emotion +EMOTIONAL-EFFECT-AS-PHYSICAL-CONTACT+ ex. I was struckbyhis sincerity. in general +EMOTION-AS-BOUNDED-SPACE+ ex. She flewinto arage. +EYES-AS-CONTAINERS-FOR-EMOTIONS+ex.Love showedin hereyes. Metaphor for +DIGNITY-AS-OBJECT+ ex. He preserved his dignity. varieties of pride Metaphor for +CONCEIT-AS-OPPONENT+ ex. He was completely overcome by conceit. conceit +CONCEITED-PERSON-AS-BIG+ ex. He’s bigasyou please. +CONCEITED-PERSON-AS-HIGH+ ex. You don’t have tobe sostuck-up! pride perform. +PRIDE-AS-FLUID-IN-HEART+ex. Her heart swelled with pride. +PRIDE-AS-OBJECT+ ex.He losthisprideandbegan to imploreher. +PRIDE-AS-PERSON+ ex.His criticism hurt her pride. Metaphor for +VANITY-AS-INFLATED-OBJECT+ ex.Her vanity has been punctured. Vanity +VANITY-AS-SENSUAL-PERSON+ ex. What you said wounded his vanity. +SELF-ESTEEM-AS-ECONOMIC-VALUE+ex.She values herself highly. +SAD-AS-DOWN+ ex. He’s reallylow these days. Metaphor List 1 : Emotion metaphor by Karin Sandstrom (2006) (Source: Linguistics in the Midnight Sun, report No 3) ( Refer to page 17 for more information) 4. Metaphor in poetry The use of metaphor in poetry is one of the most important aspects of poetic style that must be mastered. Metaphor can be described as figure of speech in which a thing is referred to as being something that it resembles. For example, a fierce person can be referred to as a tiger. Another example of a metaphor would be the description of a person who was uncommunicative as being as "silent as stone". The word stone is an image that is used to explain the intense silence of the person. In this way, metaphors are used in poetry to explain and elucidate emotions, feelings, relationships other elements that could not to described in ordinary language. Poets also use metaphor as a way of explaining or referring to something in a brief but effective way. Metaphor works on many levels in poetry. The best way to show how a metaphor function is to study the use of metaphor in description of emotion as stated in chapter V 5 Summary emotions are typically conscious phenomena; yet they typically involve more pervasive bodily manifestations than other conscious states; they vary along a number of dimensions: intensity, type and range of intentional objects, etc. they are reputed to be antagonists of rationality; but also they play an indispensable role in determining the quality of life; they contribute crucially to defining our ends and priorities; they play a crucial role in the regulation of social life; they protect us from an excessively slavish devotion to narrow conceptions of rationality; they have a central place in poetry. Metaphor is one charactistics of the language in poetry. CHAPTER 2 : THE STUDY In this chapter the procedure in which the study was carried out is reported in details and the results are revealed. 1. Research questions 1. How is metaphor used in Shakespeare’s sonnets in description of emotion? 2. Data collection A total 154 Shakespeare’s sonnets ( collected from ) were sampled for the study. Since the study involves in exploring the use of grammatical metaphor in description of emotions in poetic discourse, six topics related to six basic emotions were chosen: happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, fear, love. The selected sonnets are: 13,14, 29, 30, 73, 129, 150, 147, 151, 154. The selection is based on the following reasons: Firstly,we chose Shakespeare’s work as the main resource of data because of his popularity in English literature. Secondly, we chose his sonnets because of their suitable length and language for a thesis. Shakespeare’s sonnets or simply The Sonnets, is a collection of poems in sonnet form written by William Shakespeare that deal with such themes as love, beauty, politics, and mortality. They were probably written over a period of several years. All 154 poems appeared in a 1609 collection, comprising 152 previously unpublished sonnets and two poems, numbers 138 ("When my love swears that she is made of truth") and 144 ("Two loves have I, of comfort and despair"), that had previously been published in a 1599 miscellany entitled The Passionate Pilgrim. The first 17 sonnets are written to a young man, urging him to marry and have children, thereby passing down his beauty to the next generation. These are called the procreation sonnets. Most of them, however, 18-126, are addressed to a young man expressing the poet's love for him. Sonnets 127-152 are written to the poet's mistress expressing his love for her. The final two sonnets, 153-154, are allegorical. The final thirty or so sonnets are written about a number of issues, such as the young man's infidelity with the poet's mistress, self-resolution to control his own lust, beleaguered criticism of the world, etc. In short, there are four sub- groups of sonnets which are categorized according to topics and time. Our sampling sonnets are drawn from all the subgroups of all the time in hope that can represent the features of Shakespeare’s sonnets. The sonnets are chosen in two ways: randomly and by their popularity over the others. As a result, we can insure the diversity of our data. Thirdly, the language of the sonnets is of the 16th century which is quite near to contemporary English now. Thus, it is authentic and reliable for a linguistic study. 3. Data analysis framework Just as natural languages embody in their grammar a theory of experience, poetic language, as a figurative picture of the real world, reconstrues certain aspects or components of human experience. However, in opening them up to be observed, investigated and explained, it does so in a different way. The content of verse, no less than human feelings, is somewhat different from what we say every day. However, when we examine the grammatical patterns in which the feelings are construed, it is clear that they involved from the grammar of natural language. I will illustrate this with an example. The following expression: He kissed her passionately in public so that her cheeks blushed completely. is a sequence of figures realized by a clause complex and it is diagrammatically represented as in the figure below: Relator Figures: He kissed her passionately in public so that her cheeks blushed completely. Elements: He was kissing Her passionately [Participant] [process] [participant] [circumstance] This clause complex can be grammatically transformed into: His passionate kiss in public resulted in her complete blushing. It is clear that between the two there is a highly complex relation of grammatical metaphor because a number of transformations have taken place simultaneously: he/his, kissed/ kissing, she/her, completely/complete, blushed/blushing, so/ resulted in. We here adopted the table of class shift by Halliday ( 1999: 247) which is used for scientific language. We used it as a guideline to examine figurative language used in verses. Table 3 Types of grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse ( From Halliday and Matthiessen 1999: 247) No congruent Semantic type Metaphorical Class shift example 1 Quality Thing Adjective-noun Lovely- loveliness 2i 2ii 2iii Process Event of process Aspect of phase of process Modality of process Verb-noun Tense/phase verb (adverb)-noun Modality verb (adverb)-noun Determine-determination Going to – try Can,could– possibility/ potential 3 Circumstance Thing Preposition-noun With - accompaniment 4 Relator Thing Conjunction-noun So- cause, proof If- conditions 5i Process Event of process Aspect of phase of process Modality of process Quality Verb-noun Tense/phase verb (adverb)-noun Modality verb (adverb)-noun is increasing – increasing begin – initial [always]- constant 6i 6ii 6iii Circumstance Manner Time, place, ect. Time, place, etc Quality Class Adverb-adjective Prepositional phrase- adjective Pre. Phrase – noun premodifier Brilliantly - brilliant For a long time – lengthy Love at the first sight - fisrt sight love 7 Relator Quality Conjunction- adjective Before - previous 8 Circumstance Time, place, etc Process Be/go+preposition-verb Be about - concern; be instead of - repalce 9 Relator Process Conjunction –verb and - complement; then - follows; so - lead to 10 Relator Circumstance Conjunction-prep. when - in times of; so - as a result 11 0 Thing 0 - noun [x] - the fact of [x] 12 0 Process 0-verb [x] - [x] occurs 13 Thing Modifier ( of thing) Noun- [various] women's pleasure, On studying the table we realized that: thing relator circumstance process quality The ordering is as follows: Relator – circumstance – process – quality - thing 1 2 3 4 5 13 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 7 Direction of metaphorization ( Halliday & Matthiessen 1999:264) 4. Data analysis procedure 4.1 Results A summary of types of metaphor used in our data is shown in the table blow: Table 4 Types of metaphor in Shakespeare’ sonnets Types of metaphor Sonnets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 2i 5i /5ii XIII 1 3 1 1 XIV 2 3 10 XIX 4 2 1 10 XXIX 3 4 XXX 1 10 LXXIII 1 5 CXXIX 2 1 2 CXLVII 1 1 CL 3 2 3 CLIV 4 Number Total 7 19 5 1 49 8.64% 23.475 % 6.17% 1.23% 60.49% The above results can be displayed in a chart as follows: Chart 5: Types of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets By studying the results we can conclude that the major type of metaphor used in our data is type 13 ( thing →various), the second biggest is type 2 ( process → thing) and then comes type 1 ( quality →thing) , 5 ( process → quality) and the least is type 9 ( relator →quality). Type 3 ( circumstance →thing ), 4 ( relator →thing) , 6 ( circumstance → quality) ,7 ( relator →quality ), 8 ( circumstance →process), 10 ( relator →process), 11 ( 0 → thing), 12 ( 0 →process ) did not appear in our data. When regarding to emotion described we have drawn the following table: Table 5: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets Emotion Love/ derise Sadness Anger Disgust/ Hate Fear Joy/ happiness Number 41 28 0 0 0 2 Percentage 58 % 39% 3% The results are shown in the following chart: Chart 6: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets The biggest portion is love and then comes sadness and happy. We have found no grammatical metaphor in description of emotions such as anger, fear, disgust. 4. 2 Discussion 4.2.1 Nominalization in English poetic discourse 4.2.1.1 Taking process as thing In the congruent form of realization, a process should be realized by a verb. But in the incongruent form, a process can be represented as a thing, as in: That thou among the wastes of time must go,Since sweets and beauties do themselves forsake ( Sonnet number XII) 4.2.1.2 Taking quality as thing In the congruent form, quality is realized by adjectives. But in the incongruent form, it can be represented by a noun. That means that the speaker can take quality as thing, as in: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,And summer's lease hath all too short a date:Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,( Sonnet number XIX) In this type of metaphor, quality can appear in the form of a circumstantial element or a participant. In the meantime, the original carrier can become the epithet of a participant and its role in the clause becomes less important. In short, nominalization plays a key role in generation of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets. 4.2.2 Syntax in poetic discourse Syntax - the organization of words, phrases and clauses, i.e. the word order. Finding the right syntax for a poem is like finding the right light before you take a photograph. If the order of the words is "wrong," the emotional, psychological, and/or spiritual impact of the words will be lost. After reading the example below you will "feel" the impact of the "right order." Syntax examples: "wrong" order "right" order "At fourteen I married My Lord, you." "I married you, My Lord, at fourteen." "Thirty-five years I lived with my husband." "I lived with my husband for thirty-five years" (William Carlos Williams). We have found the same ‘wrong’ order in our data: - O! from what power hast thou this powerful might,With insufficiency my heart to sway? - My love is as a fever, longing still - A woman's face with nature's own hand painted, Hast thou, the master mistress of my passion; 4.2.3. Syntagmatic Complexity: Syndromes of elemental metaphor * Lower rank syndrome (figure reconstrued as if elements ( a figure, congruently construed as a clause, is instead reworded as a nominal group, which congruently construed as element) This happens in type 1 (quality → thing) and type 2 ( process → thing or in other words ( the nominalization of qualities and process respectively) and type 13 ( thing →various). Other kinds of metaphor may also be involved in these lower rank syndrome. heaven gate 2i gate of heaven at break of day 2i 13 when the day breaks shifting change 5 change is shifting men’s art 13 the art of men * Higher rank syndrome: sequences reconstrued as if figures ( a sequence, congruently construed as a clause complex, is instead reworded as a clause, which congruently construed as a figure) We can find this in the following examples: ….A woman's gentle heart, but not acquainted 13 9 with shifting change, as is false women's fashion… 5i 13 …Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,Featured like him, like him with friends possessed,… 5. Summary This chapter has been an attempt to clarify the role of grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. We have begun by noticing some characteristics of poetic discourse and finished by analyzing some illustration taken from English poetic discourse in comparison with the results found by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) in the role of metaphor in scientific discourse. We have concluded that: The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table 5.2 are types 1, type 2 and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type 1 or type 2. Syntagmatically, the grammatical structure is usually incomplete: “But since she prick'd thee out for women's pleasure, Mine be thy love and thy love's use their treasure.” Surprisingly, nominalization plays a key role in creating grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. PART III APPLICATION 1 Summary of the major findings In this research paper we have been able to reach the following achievements. (i) In examining the use of grammatical metaphor in English poetic discourse, the followings findings can be stated: - Nominalization plays a key role in generating a grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. - The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table 5 are types 1, type 2 and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type 1 or type 2. - There is the appearance of the ‘wrong order’ when considering the syntax of the verves. - There is similarity in lower rank and higher rank syndromes when compared to which expressed by Halliday ( 1990) about grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse. - Grammatical metaphor is used mostly to describe love and some aspects of love like happiness, sadness. Emotions like fear, disgust, anger are not subjects of interest in Shakespeare’s sonnets. 2 Implications of the study 2. 1 To teachers and students A conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that metaphorical structures yield a denseness of meaning that more congruent structures typically dilute. In many cases you may face that fact that the message conveyed cannot be encoded in any other way than metaphorical wording. Metaphor , however, is not easy to use and interpret. People find it difficult in facing with metaphor. There is a fact that it is not an easy task to decide a wording metaphorical or not let alone to understand it. Nevertheless, knowledge of metaphor helps students a great deal in understanding and providing written task. Therefore, we suggest that metaphor should be taken into account in developing writing and reading materials for students. 2.2 To translators One of the most important issues in the translation of poetry concerns the nature of poetry and of the language it uses. Jean Boase-Beier will argue that it makes more sense to speak of poetic LANGUAGE, rather than of poetic TEXTS. Poetic language can be defined by a particular set of characteristics, and the way these are used, but not by the place of its occurrence, which may be in texts traditionally considered non-literary, as well as in poems. Understanding a poem is a prerequisite for translating it, and understanding a poem involves identifying and analysing the characteristics of poetic language, which make up what we call the 'style' of a poem. Stylistics, as the study of style, thus plays a major part in the translation of any text which contains poetic language. Style is defined, not as form (or the "way something is said"), but as the link between form and meaning. Stylistic features of texts are devices such as metaphor, repetition, iconicity and ambiguity. Many people think the translation of poetry is impossible, but this is not the case. A translation which takes stylistic devices into account stands a good chance of success. 3 Suggestions for further studies This study is centered on the use of metaphor in description of emotion in English poetic discourse. Thus, it is limited in the field of poetic discourse. Much of our effort has been made to analyze instances in Shakespeare’ sonnets. Therefore, further study of the topic, if possible, should cover a broader and more temporary range of poetic discourse. Beside researches on other genres such as funny stories, advertising would be of great value. Furthermore, in this study we can only be able to explore the role of nominalization in creating grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse and neglected the role of verbalization which will be an interesting topic for other researches. REFERENCES Arnold, Magda. 1960. Emotion and Personality. New York: Columbia University Press. Averill, James. 1982. Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion. New York: Springer- Verlag. Broad, C. D. 1971. "Emotion and Sentiment." In Critical Essays in Moral Theory. London: Allen & Unwin. Broad, C. D. 1971[1954]. “Emotion and Sentiment.” In Critical Essays in Moral Theory. London: Allen & Unwin. Damasio, Antonio. 1994. Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Damasio, Antonio. 1999. The Feeling of what Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace and Co. D'Arms, J., and D. Jacobson. 1993. "Expressivism, Morality, and the Emotions." Ethics 104:739-63. Deigh, John. 1994. "Cognitivism in the Theory of Emotions." Ethics 104:824-54. DeLancey, Craig. 2001. Passionate Engines: What Emotions Reveal About Mind and Artificial Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ekman, Paul. 1972. Emotions in the Human Face. New York: Pergamon Press. Elster, Jon. 1999. Alchemies of the Mind: Rationality and the Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Evans, Dylan. 2001. Emotions: The Science of Sentiment. Oxford: Oxford University Press Evans, Dylan. 2002. "The search hypothesis of emotions". British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 53:497-509. Fowler, A. 1982. Kinds of Literature, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Goldie, Peter, (ed.). 2002. Understanding Emotions. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. Goldie, Peter. 2000. The Emotions: A Philosophical Exploration. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gordon, Robert. 1987. The Structure of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Greenspan, Patricia. 1988. Emotions and Reasons: an Inquiry into Emotional Justification. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall. Griffiths, Paul. 1997. What Emotions Really Are: The Problem of Psychological Categories. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Halliday, M. A. K. 1975. Learning How to Mean: Explorations in the Development Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2 Halliday, M. A. K. 2004. “On grammar as the driving force from primary to higher Halliday, M. A. K. and C. M. I. M. MATTHIESSEN. 1999. Construing Experience Halliday, M. A. K., J. Gibbons, and H. Nicholas. 1990. Learning, Keeping, and Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Arnold. Halliday, M.AK. 1998. Things and relations. In: J.R. Martin & Robert Veel ,Reading Hanvey, R. 1979. “Cross cultural awareness”, in Smith, E. C. and L. F. Luce Harre, Rom. 1986. The Social Construction of Emotions. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Hasan, R. 1977. “Text in the Systemic-Functional model”, in Dressler, W. Hasan, R. 1996a. “Literacy, everyday talk and society”, in Hasan, R. and G. Williams Hasan, R. 1996b. “The ontogenesis of ideology: an interpretation of mother-child Hasan, R. and C. Cloran. 1990. “A sociolinguistic study of everyday talk between Hasan, R. and Martin, R.J. 1989. Language Development: Learning Language, Higgs, T. V., Curriculum, Competence, and the Foreign Language Teacher, K., J. Gibbons, and H. Nicholas (eds.), Learning, Keeping, and Using Language, 24/2005 Vol.1, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, John Benjamins, pp. 419-432. Kenny, Anthony. 1963. Action, Emotion and Will. London; New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul; Humanities Press. Kraut, Robert. 1986. "Love De Re". Midwest Studies in Philosophy 10:413-30. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, George & Mark Turner. 1989. More than Cool Reason. A Field Guide to Poetic Lazarus, Richard. 1991. "Cognition and Motivation in Emotion." American Psychologist 46:362-67. Levenson, Robert W. 1999. "The Intrapersonal Function of Emotion." Cognition and Emotion 13:481-504. Lyons, William. 1980. Emotion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Magai, Carol and Haviland-Jones, Jeannette. 2002. The Hidden Genius of Emotions: Lifespan Transformations of Personality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marchan, V. and E. BATES. 1994. “Continuity in lexical and morphological Marks, Joel. 1982. "A Theory of Emotion." Philosophical Studies 42: 227-242. Marr, David. 1982. Vision. San Francisco: Freeman. Matthews, Gerald and Adrian Wells. 1994. Attention and Emotion: a Clinical Perspective Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. 1995. Lexicogrammatical Cartography: English Systems, MELROSE, R. 1995. The Communicative Syllabus, London and New York, Pinter Minh, Do Tuan.2001. An investigation into Grammatical Metaphor in English scientific discourse. Hanoi national university, College of foreign languages Neu, Jerome. 1977. Emotion, Thought and therapy: a Study of Hume and Spinoza and the Relationship of Philosophical Theories of the Emotions to Psychological Theories of Therapy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nussbaum, Martha. 1990. Love's Knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oakley, Justin. 1992. Morality and the Emotions. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Oatley, Keith. 1992. Best Laid Schemes: The Psychology of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ortony, Ed. (1993). Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Panksepp, Jaak. 1998. Affective neuroscience: the foundations of human and animal emotions. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Peterfreund, Emmanuel. 1971. Information, Systems, and Psychoanalysis: An Evolutionary Biological Approach to Psychoanalytic Theory. New York: Intrernational Universities Press. Picard, Rosalind. 1997. Affective Computing. Cambridge: MIT Press. Searle, John. 1979. 'Metaphor'. In Metaphor and Thought. (ed.) Andrew Ortony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979) pp. 92-123. Thompson, Geoff. 1996. Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Arnold. Tov-Ruach, Leila, (pseud for Amelie Rorty). 1980. "Jealousy, Attention and Loss." In Explaining Emotions, ed. Amelie Rorty. Los Angeles: University of California Press. Williams, Bernard. 1973. "Morality and the Emotions." In Problems of the Self: Philosophical Papers 1956-1972, 207-29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wilson, J. R. S. 1972. Emotion and Object. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1953. Philosophical Investigations. Trans. G. E. M. Anscombe. New York: Macmillan. Wollheim, Richard. 1999. On the Emotions. New Haven: Yale University Press. Wright, Ian, Aaron Sloman, and Luc Beaudoin. 1996. "Towards a Design-Based Analysis of Emotional Episodes." Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology 3:101-126. http:// www.educationoasis.com/curriculum/Reading/glossary_reading_terms.htm