Cơ sở dữ liệu - Chapter 1: Introduction
Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
● Equivalent expressions
● Different algorithms for each operation
Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can
be enormous
Need to estimate the cost of operations
● Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the
database must maintain
● Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions
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Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.dbbook.com for conditions on reuse
Chapter 1: Introduction
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Chapter 1: Introduction
n Purpose of Database Systems
n View of Data
n Database Languages
n Relational Databases
n Database Design
n Objectbased and semistructured databases
n Data Storage and Querying
n Transaction Management
n Database Architecture
n Database Users and Administrators
n Overall Structure
n History of Database Systems
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Database Management System (DBMS)
n DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
l Collection of interrelated data
l Set of programs to access the data
l An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
n Database Applications:
l Banking: all transactions
l Airlines: reservations, schedules
l Universities: registration, grades
l Sales: customers, products, purchases
l Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
l Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
l Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
n Databases touch all aspects of our lives
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Purpose of Database Systems
n In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of
file systems
n Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
l Data redundancy and inconsistency
Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
l Difficulty in accessing data
Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
l Data isolation — multiple files and formats
l Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
n Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
l Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
l Concurrent access by multiple users
Concurrent accessed needed for performance
Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
– Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the
same time
l Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
n Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Levels of Abstraction
n Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
n Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type customer = record
customer_id : string;
customer_name : string;
customer_street : string;
customer_city : integer;
end;
n View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
View of Data
An architecture for a database system
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Instances and Schemas
n Similar to types and variables in programming languages
n Schema – the logical structure of the database
l Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them)
l Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
l Physical schema: database design at the physical level
l Logical schema: database design at the logical level
n Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
l Analogous to the value of a variable
n Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
l Applications depend on the logical schema
l In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be
well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Data Models
n A collection of tools for describing
l Data
l Data relationships
l Data semantics
l Data constraints
n Relational model
n EntityRelationship data model (mainly for database design)
n Objectbased data models (Objectoriented and Objectrelational)
n Semistructured data model (XML)
n Other older models:
l Network model
l Hierarchical model
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
n Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the
appropriate data model
l DML also known as query language
n Two classes of languages
l Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get
those data
l Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is
required without specifying how to get those data
n SQL is the most widely used query language
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Data Definition Language (DDL)
n Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table account (
accountnumber char(10),
balance integer)
n DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary
n Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
l Database schema
l Data storage and definition language
Specifies the storage structure and access methods used
l Integrity constraints
Domain constraints
Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
Assertions
l Authorization
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Relational Model
n Example of tabular data in the relational model
Attributes
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
A Sample Relational Database
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
SQL
n SQL: widely used nonprocedural language
l Example: Find the name of the customer with customerid 192837465
select customer.customer_name
from customer
where customer.customer_id = ‘192837465’
l Example: Find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with
customerid 192837465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer_id = ‘192837465’ and
depositor.account_number = account.account_number
n Application programs generally access databases through one of
l Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
l Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
n Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design
requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
l Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
l Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various
relation schemas?
n Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
The EntityRelationship Model
n Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
l Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable
from other objects
Described by a set of attributes
l Relationship: an association among several entities
n Represented diagrammatically by an entityrelationship diagram:
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
ObjectRelational Data Models
n Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and
constructs to deal with added data types.
n Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including nonatomic
values such as nested relations.
n Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to
data, while extending modeling power.
n Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
XML: Extensible Markup Language
n Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
n Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
n The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
n XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
n A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Storage Management
n Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the lowlevel data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
n The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
l Interaction with the file manager
l Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
n Issues:
l Storage access
l File organization
l Indexing and hashing
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Query Processing (Cont.)
n Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
l Equivalent expressions
l Different algorithms for each operation
n Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can
be enormous
n Need to estimate the cost of operations
l Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the
database must maintain
l Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Transaction Management
n A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
n Transactionmanagement component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
n Concurrencycontrol manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by
the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
n Centralized
n Clientserver
n Parallel (multiprocessor)
n Distributed
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with
the system
n Application programmers – interact with system through DML calls
n Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language
n Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do
not fit into the traditional data processing framework
n Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs that
have been written previously
l Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers,
clerical staff
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Database Administrator
n Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the
database administrator has a good understanding of the
enterprise’s information resources and needs.
n Database administrator's duties include:
l Schema definition
l Storage structure and access method definition
l Schema and physical organization modification
l Granting user authority to access the database
l Specifying integrity constraints
l Acting as liaison with users
l Monitoring performance and responding to changes in
requirements
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Overall System Structure
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
History of Database Systems
n 1950s and early 1960s:
l Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provide only sequential access
l Punched cards for input
n Late 1960s and 1970s:
l Hard disks allow direct access to data
l Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
l Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
IBM Research begins System R prototype
UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
l Highperformance (for the era) transaction processing
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
History (cont.)
n 1980s:
l Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
l Parallel and distributed database systems
l Objectoriented database systems
n 1990s:
l Large decision support and datamining applications
l Large multiterabyte data warehouses
l Emergence of Web commerce
n 2000s:
l XML and XQuery standards
l Automated database administration
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.dbbook.com for conditions on reuse
End of Chapter 1
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Figure 1.4
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan1.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, May 23, 2005
Figure 1.7
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