Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single
value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
■ Aggregate operation in relational algebra
E is any relationalalgebra expression
● G
1, G2 , Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
● Each F
i is an aggregate function
● Each A
i is an attribute name
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Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.dbbook.com for conditions on reuse
Chapter 2: Relational Model
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Chapter 2: Relational Model
n Structure of Relational Databases
n Fundamental RelationalAlgebraOperations
n Additional RelationalAlgebraOperations
n Extended RelationalAlgebraOperations
n Null Values
n Modification of the Database
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Example of a Relation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Basic Structure
n Formally, given sets D1, D2, . Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D2 x x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of ntuples (a1, a2, , an) where each ai ∈ Di
n Example: If
l customer_name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay, }
/* Set of all customer names */
l customer_street = {Main, North, Park, } /* set of all street names*/
l customer_city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield, } /* set of all city names */
Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison),
(Smith, North, Rye),
(Curry, North, Rye),
(Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield) }
is a relation over
customer_name x customer_street x customer_city
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Attribute Types
n Each attribute of a relation has a name
n The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the
attribute
n Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible
l E.g. the value of an attribute can be an account number,
but cannot be a set of account numbers
n Domain is said to be atomic if all its members are atomic
n The special value null is a member of every domain
n The null value causes complications in the definition of many operations
l We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation and
consider their effect later
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Relation Schema
n A1, A2, , An are attributes
n R = (A1, A2, , An ) is a relation schema
Example:
Customer_schema = (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
n r(R) denotes a relation r on the relation schema R
Example:
customer (Customer_schema)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Relation Instance
n The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a
table
n An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
Jones
Smith
Curry
Lindsay
customer_name
Main
North
North
Park
customer_street
Harrison
Rye
Rye
Pittsfield
customer_city
customer
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Relations are Unordered
n Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
n Example: account relation with unordered tuples
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Database
n A database consists of multiple relations
n Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each relation
storing one part of the information
account : stores information about accounts
depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers
n Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account_number, balance, customer_name, ..)
results in
l repetition of information
e.g.,if two customers own an account (What gets repeated?)
l the need for null values
e.g., to represent a customer without an account
n Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design relational schemas
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
The customer Relation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
The depositor Relation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Keys
n Let K ⊆ R
n K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple of
each possible relation r(R)
l by “possible r ” we mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise we
are modeling.
l Example: {customer_name, customer_street} and
{customer_name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly have
the same name
In real life, an attribute such as customer_id would be used instead of
customer_name to uniquely identify customers, but we omit it to keep
our examples small, and instead assume customer names are unique.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Keys (Cont.)
n K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {customer_name} is a candidate key for Customer, since it
is a superkey and no subset of it is a superkey.
n Primary key: a candidate key chosen as the principal means of
identifying tuples within a relation
l Should choose an attribute whose value never, or very rarely,
changes.
l E.g. email address is unique, but may change
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Foreign Keys
n A relation schema may have an attribute that corresponds to the primary
key of another relation. The attribute is called a foreign key.
l E.g. customer_name and account_number attributes of depositor are
foreign keys to customer and account respectively.
l Only values occurring in the primary key attribute of the referenced
relation may occur in the foreign key attribute of the referencing
relation.
n Schema diagram
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Query Languages
n Language in which user requests information from the database.
n Categories of languages
l Procedural
l Nonprocedural, or declarative
n “Pure” languages:
l Relational algebra
l Tuple relational calculus
l Domain relational calculus
n Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that people
use.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Relational Algebra
n Procedural language
n Six basic operators
l select: σ
l project: ∏
l union: ∪
l set difference: –
l Cartesian product: x
l rename: ρ
n The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new
relation as a result.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Select Operation – Example
n Relation r
A B C D
α
α
β
β
α
β
β
β
1
5
12
23
7
7
3
10
σA=B ^ D > 5 (r)
A B C D
α
β
α
β
1
23
7
10
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Select Operation
n Notation: σ p(r)
n p is called the selection predicate
n Defined as:
σp(r) = {t | t ∈ r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms
connected by : ∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not)
Each term is one of:
op or
where op is one of: =, ≠, >, ≥. <. ≤
n Example of selection:
σ branch_name=“Perryridge”(account)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Project Operation – Example
n Relation r: A B C
α
α
β
β
10
20
30
40
1
1
1
2
A C
α
α
β
β
1
1
1
2
=
A C
α
β
β
1
1
2
∏A,C (r)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Project Operation
n Notation:
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
n The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing
the columns that are not listed
n Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
n Example: To eliminate the branch_name attribute of account
∏account_number, balance (account)
)( ,,, 21 rkAAA ∏
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Union Operation – Example
n Relations r, s:
n r ∪ s:
A B
α
α
β
1
2
1
A B
α
β
2
3
r
s
A B
α
α
β
β
1
2
1
3
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Union Operation
n Notation: r ∪ s
n Defined as:
r ∪ s = {t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
n For r ∪ s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
n Example: to find all customers with either an account or a loan
∏customer_name (depositor) ∪ ∏customer_name (borrower)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Set Difference Operation – Example
n Relations r, s:
n r – s:
A B
α
α
β
1
2
1
A B
α
β
2
3
r
s
A B
α
β
1
1
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Set Difference Operation
n Notation r – s
n Defined as:
r – s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∉ s}
n Set differences must be taken between compatible
relations.
l r and s must have the same arity
l attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
CartesianProduct Operation – Example
n Relations r, s:
n r x s:
A B
α
β
1
2
A B
α
α
α
α
β
β
β
β
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
α
β
β
γ
α
β
β
γ
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
C D
α
β
β
γ
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
br
s
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
CartesianProduct Operation
n Notation r x s
n Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t ∈ r and q ∈ s}
n Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is, R ∩ S = ∅).
n If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must be
used.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Composition of Operations
n Can build expressions using multiple operations
n Example: σA=C(r x s)
n r x s
n σA=C(r x s)
A B
α
α
α
α
β
β
β
β
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
α
β
β
γ
α
β
β
γ
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
A B C D E
α
β
β
1
2
2
α
β
β
10
10
20
a
a
b
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Rename Operation
n Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational
algebra expressions.
n Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
n Example:
ρ x (E)
returns the expression E under the name X
n If a relationalalgebra expression E has arity n, then
returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , ., An .
)(),...,,( 21 EnAAAxρ
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Banking Example
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
customer (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
account (account_number, branch_name, balance)
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
depositor (customer_name, account_number)
borrower (customer_name, loan_number)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Example Queries
n Find all loans of over $1200
n Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200
σamount > 1200 (loan)
∏loan_number (σamount > 1200 (loan))
n Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both,
from the bank
∏customer_name (borrower) ∪ ∏customer_name (depositor)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Example Queries
n Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge
branch.
n Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of
the bank.
∏customer_name (σbranch_name = “Perryridge”
(σborrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan))) –
∏customer_name(depositor)
∏customer_name (σbranch_name=“Perryridge”
(σborrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan)))
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Example Queries
n Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
l Query 2
∏customer_name(σloan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number (
(σbranch_name = “Perryridge” (loan)) x borrower))
l Query 1
∏customer_name (σbranch_name = “Perryridge” (
σborrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number (borrower x loan)))
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Example Queries
n Find the largest account balance
l Strategy:
Find those balances that are not the largest
– Rename account relation as d so that we can compare each
account balance with all others
Use set difference to find those account balances that were not found
in the earlier step.
l The query is:
∏balance(account) ∏account.balance
(σaccount.balance < d.balance (account x ρd (account)))
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Formal Definition
n A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the
following:
l A relation in the database
l A constant relation
n Let E1 and E2 be relationalalgebra expressions; the following are all
relationalalgebra expressions:
l E1 ∪ E2
l E1 – E2
l E1 x E2
l σp (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1
l ∏s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1
l ρ x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.
n Set intersection
n Natural join
n Division
n Assignment
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
SetIntersection Operation
n Notation: r ∩ s
n Defined as:
n r ∩ s = { t | t ∈ r and t ∈ s }
n Assume:
l r, s have the same arity
l attributes of r and s are compatible
n Note: r ∩ s = r – (r – s)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
SetIntersection Operation – Example
n Relation r, s:
n r ∩ s
A B
α
α
β
1
2
1
A B
α
β
2
3
r s
A B
α 2
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
n Notation: r s
NaturalJoin Operation
n Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R ∪ S obtained as follows:
l Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
l If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R ∩ S, add a
tuple t to the result, where
t has the same value as tr on r
t has the same value as ts on s
n Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
l Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
l r s is defined as:
∏r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (σr.B = s.B ∧ r.D = s.D (r x s))
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Natural Join Operation – Example
n Relations r, s:
A B
α
β
γ
α
δ
1
2
4
1
2
C D
α
γ
β
γ
β
a
a
b
a
b
B
1
3
1
2
3
D
a
a
a
b
b
E
α
β
γ
δ
∈
r
A B
α
α
α
α
δ
1
1
1
1
2
C D
α
α
γ
γ
β
a
a
a
a
b
E
α
γ
α
γ
δ
s
n r s
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Division Operation
n Notation:
n Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”.
n Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively
where
l R = (A1, , Am , B1, , Bn )
l S = (B1, , Bn)
The result of r ÷ s is a relation on schema
R – S = (A1, , Am)
r ÷ s = { t | t ∈ ∏ RS (r) ∧ ∀ u ∈ s ( tu ∈ r ) }
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t and u to
produce a single tuple
r ÷ s
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Division Operation – Example
n Relations r, s:
n r ÷ s: A
B
α
β
1
2
A B
α
α
α
β
γ
δ
δ
δ
∈
∈
β
1
2
3
1
1
1
3
4
6
1
2
r
s
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Another Division Example
A B
α
α
α
β
β
γ
γ
γ
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
C D
α
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
β
a
a
b
a
b
a
b
b
E
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
n Relations r, s:
n r ÷ s:
D
a
b
E
1
1
A B
α
γ
a
a
C
γ
γ
r
s
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Division Operation (Cont.)
n Property
l Let q = r ÷ s
l Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s ⊆ r
n Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S ⊆ R
r ÷ s = ∏RS (r ) – ∏RS ( ( ∏RS (r ) x s ) – ∏RS,S(r ))
To see why
l ∏RS,S (r) simply reorders attributes of r
l ∏RS (∏RS (r ) x s ) – ∏RS,S(r) ) gives those tuples t in
∏RS (r ) such that for some tuple u ∈ s, tu ∉ r.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Assignment Operation
n The assignment operation (←) provides a convenient way to express
complex queries.
l Write query as a sequential program consisting of
a series of assignments
followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of
the query.
l Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
n Example: Write r ÷ s as
temp1 ← ∏RS (r )
temp2 ← ∏RS ((temp1 x s ) – ∏RS,S (r ))
result = temp1 – temp2
l The result to the right of the ← is assigned to the relation variable on
the left of the ←.
l May use variable in subsequent expressions.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Bank Example Queries
n Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at
bank.
∏customer_name (borrower) ∩ ∏customer_name (depositor)
n Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the
loan amount
∏customer_name, loan_number, amount (borrower loan)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
l Query 1
∏customer_name (σbranch_name = “Downtown” (depositor account )) ∩
∏customer_name (σbranch_name = “Uptown” (depositor account))
l Query 2
∏customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)
÷ ρtemp(branch_name) ({(“Downtown” ), (“Uptown” )})
Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.
Bank Example Queries
n Find all customers who have an account from at least the “Downtown”
and the Uptown” branches.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
n Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn city.
Bank Example Queries
∏customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)
÷ ∏branch_name (σbranch_city = “Brooklyn” (branch))
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Extended RelationalAlgebraOperations
n Generalized Projection
n Aggregate Functions
n Outer Join
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Generalized Projection
n Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be
used in the projection list.
n E is any relationalalgebra expression
n Each of F1, F2, , Fn are are arithmetic expressions involving constants
and attributes in the schema of E.
n Given relation credit_info(customer_name, limit, credit_balance), find
how much more each person can spend:
∏customer_name, limit – credit_balance (credit_info)
)( ,...,,
21
E
nFFF
∏
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Aggregate Functions and Operations
n Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single
value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
n Aggregate operation in relational algebra
E is any relationalalgebra expression
l G1, G2 , Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
l Each Fi is an aggregate function
l Each Ai is an attribute name
)()(,,(),(,,, 221121 Ennn AFAFAFGGG ϑ
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Aggregate Operation – Example
n Relation r:
A B
α
α
β
β
α
β
β
β
C
7
7
3
10
n g sum(c) (r) sum(c )
27
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Aggregate Operation – Example
n Relation account grouped by branchname:
branch_name g sum(balance) (account)
branch_name account_number balance
Perryridge
Perryridge
Brighton
Brighton
Redwood
A102
A201
A217
A215
A222
400
900
750
750
700
branch_name sum(balance)
Perryridge
Brighton
Redwood
1300
1500
700
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
n Result of aggregation does not have a name
l Can use rename operation to give it a name
l For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate
operation
branch_name g sum(balance) as sum_balance (account)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Outer Join
n An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
n Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
n Uses null values:
l null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
l All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by
definition.
We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Outer Join – Example
n Relation loan
n Relation borrower
customer_name loan_number
Jones
Smith
Hayes
L170
L230
L155
3000
4000
1700
loan_number amount
L170
L230
L260
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Outer Join – Example
n Join
loan borrower
loan_number amount
L170
L230
3000
4000
customer_name
Jones
Smith
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Jones
Smith
null
loan_number amount
L170
L230
L260
3000
4000
1700
customer_namebranch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
n Left Outer Join
loan borrower
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Outer Join – Example
loan_number amount
L170
L230
L155
3000
4000
null
customer_name
Jones
Smith
Hayes
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
null
loan_number amount
L170
L230
L260
L155
3000
4000
1700
null
customer_name
Jones
Smith
null
Hayes
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
null
n Full Outer Join
loan borrower
n Right Outer Join
loan borrower
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Null Values
n It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes
n null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
n The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
n Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
n For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other
value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same (as in SQL)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Null Values
n Comparisons with null values return the special truth value: unknown
l If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5)
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
n Threevalued logic using the truth value unknown:
l OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
l AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
l NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
l In SQL “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to
unknown
n Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown
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Modification of the Database
n The content of the database may be modified using the following
operations:
l Deletion
l Insertion
l Updating
n All these operations are expressed using the assignment
operator.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Deletion
n A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except
instead of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are
removed from the database.
n Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only
particular attributes
n A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
r ← r – E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Deletion Examples
n Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
n Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.
r1 ← σ branch_city = “Needham” (account branch )
r2 ← ∏ account_number, branch_name, balance (r1)
r3 ← ∏ customer_name, account_number (r2 depositor)
account ← account – r2
depositor ← depositor – r3
n Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
loan ← loan – σ amount ≥ 0 and amount ≤ 50 (loan)
account ← account – σ branch_name = “Perryridge” (account )
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Insertion
n To insert data into a relation, we either:
l specify a tuple to be inserted
l write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
n in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r ← r ∪ E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
n The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant
relation containing one tuple.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Insertion Examples
n Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in
account A973 at the Perryridge branch.
n Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.
account ← account ∪ {(“A973”, “Perryridge”, 1200)}
depositor ← depositor ∪ {(“Smith”, “A973”)}
r1 ← (σbranch_name = “Perryridge” (borrower loan))
account ← account ∪ ∏loan_number, branch_name, 200 (r1)
depositor ← depositor ∪ ∏customer_name, loan_number (r1)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Updating
n A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all values in
the tuple
n Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
n Each Fi is either
l the I th attribute of r, if the I th attribute is not updated, or,
l if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression, involving only
constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the
attribute
)(,,,, 21 rr lFFF ∏←
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Update Examples
n Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.
n Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest
and pay all others 5 percent
account ← ∏ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 (σ BAL > 10000 (account ))
∪ ∏ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (σBAL ≤ 10000 (account))
account ← ∏ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.dbbook.com for conditions on reuse
End of Chapter 2
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.3. The branch relation
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Figure 2.6: The loan relation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.7: The borrower relation
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.9
Result of σbranch_name = “Perryridge” (loan)
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.10:
Loan number and the amount of the loan
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Figure 2.11: Names of all customers who
have either an account or an loan
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Figure 2.12:
Customers with an account but no loan
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Figure 2.13: Result of borrower |X| loan
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Figure 2.14
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Figure 2.15
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Figure 2.16
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.17
Largest account balance in the bank
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Figure 2.18: Customers who live on the
same street and in the same city as
Smith
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Figure 2.19: Customers with both an
account and a loan at the bank
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Figure 2.20
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.21
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Figure 2.22
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.23
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.24: The credit_info relation
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Figure 2.25
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Figure 2.26: The pt_works relation
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Figure 2.27
The pt_works relation after regrouping
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Figure 2.28
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Figure 2.29
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.30
The employee and ft_works relations
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Figure 2.31
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.32
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.33
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan2.Database System Concepts 5th Edition, June 15, 2005
Figure 2.34
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