Đề tài A critical discourse analysis of the news on north korean missile launches

Chapter 3 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION As we have mentioned, the research is carried out in two stages: the analysis of headlines and the analysis of full-text news reports. In the first stage, we will make a detailed description of the representation of the US- Japan coalition and North Korea in the headlines from VOA and Nhan Dan. The second stage of analysis will examine and discuss the use of the most prominent discursive strategies practiced by the two sources of news in representing the two groups of actors in order to provide supports for what is found in the first stage. 3.1. Analysis of Headlines This part aims at answering the following questions: What are the most prominent processes attributed to the US- Japan coalition and North Korea by VOA and Nhan Dan? What are the most prominent roles assigned to these groups of actors by VOA and Nhan Dan? iii. Why are the US- Japan coalition and North Korea involved in such processes and roles in VOA and Nhan Dan? The news under analysis was reported in the period of time after North Korea missile test on July 5th 2006. It should be noted here that there have been six-party nuclear talks which aim to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns as a result of the North Korean nuclear weapons program. There has been a series of meetings with six participating states: the People's Republic of China; the Republic of Korea (South Korea); the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea); the United States of America; the Russian Federation; and Japan. These talks were a result of North Korea withdrawing from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 2003. Five rounds of talks from 2003 to 2006 produced little net progress because of the different goals and interests of the six nations. After the missile test on July 5, the US and Japan strongly criticized North Korea and tried to persuade the United Nations to give sanctions against North Korea. Meanwhile, Russia and China - two veto-wielding Council members - opposed strong punitive actions against North Korea and they expressed concerns that punitive measures would inflame tensions in the region. 3.1.1. Voice Of America Having a quick look at the headlines from VOA (Appendix 1), we can see that most of the articles (88.9%) were released before July 15- the day when the UN made its resolution in response to the missile test. This well served the US and Japan’s intention of putting pressure on the Security Council to produce a resolution imposing sanctions on North Korea. Another thing is that the articles which directly represent the viewpoint of Russia and China are very few (23.1%) compared to those of the US and Japan (76.9%), which partly proves VOA’s priority to the latter. The transitivity analysis of headlines shows that VOA positively represents the US and Japan. We can see that a majority of processes are attributed to the US and Japan (76.9%) and all these processes are either verbal (60%) or material (40%). The US and Japan play the role of actor and sayer in all the processes. In material processes, they play the role of actor with verbs denoting positive actions, or showing their power and domination, as in: VOA3 US, Asian neighbors weigh responses to N. Korea missile launch VOA12 Bush seeks unified stance on North Korea VOA14 US Intelligence Chief vows to protect American civil liberties The material process ‘protect’ may bare a presupposition that the US is in danger of being attacked and the implicature here would be that North Korea should be punished and the US should launch pre-emptive strike to protect itself. This creates on the readers’ mind a positive impression of the US’ intention. In all verbal processes, the US and Japan are assigned the sayer role, which shows their power and their active position: VOA1 White House confirms North Korea launches five missiles, one long-range VOA9 Japan urges UN sanctions against North Korea VOA18 Japan, China, South Korea, ASEAN urge North Korea to talk The verbal process ‘urge’ strongly indicates that the US and Japan are putting pressure on the UN as well as on North Korea and that a resolution should be made immediately. In this way, VOA produces and reproduces the US and Japan’s domination over North Korea in the power relation between them. The domination is reinforced in the verbal process :  VOA14 US Intelligence Chief vows to protect American civil liberties The process implies the US’ millitary strength and suggests that they are ready for millitary actions. Moreover, by putting other nations in the same subjects as in ‘US, Asian neighbors’ (VOA3) or ‘Japan, China, South Korea, ASEAN’ (VOA18) , the US and Japan have indirectly drawn other nations to their side in order to achieve their purpose of isolating North Korea. In short, the types of processes associated with the US and Japan, the nature of their involvement and the roles they play in those processes reveal a positive representation of this coalition by VOA. On the other hand, the transitivity analysis of the headlines well proves that VOA has generated a negative image of North Korea on the readers’ mind. Like the US and Japan, North Korea is also engaged mainly in material and verbal processes: material 40%, verbal 46.7% and relational 13.3%. North Korea occupies the role of actor in many material processes (83.3%); however, the nature of the processes shows an opposite image via verbs denoting negative meanings : VOA4 North Korea tests seventh missile despite international condemnation VOA6 N. Korean missile launches provoke international criticism VOA16 North Korea ignores South Korean criticism The verb ‘provoke’ strongly indicates that North Korea has intentionally made not only the US but the whole world angry and opposed to its action, which well supports the US’ purpose of isolating North Korea. The verb ‘ignore’ means that North Korea pays no attention to South Korea’s opinion. Using this word, VOA has widened the gap in the vulnerable relationship between North and South Korea. These processes drive the readers to think that North Korea is not cooperative in healing the relationship and keeping peace although this may not be the fact. The negative impression on North Korea is reinforced in verbal processes, in which it is assigned both the role of sayer (57.1%) and target (42.9%). What is particularly crucial here is the nature of North Korea’s involvement in these verbal processes : VOA2 North Korea defends missile tests as 'Sovereign Right' VOA10 North Korea vows more missile launches VOA13 N. Korea says Japanese sanctions will bring 'disastrous' response VOA18 Japan, China, South Korea, ASEAN urge North Korea to talk The verbal process ‘defend’ bares a presupposition that North Korea has done something wrong and has to protect itself from criticism. The word ‘vow’ potrays North Korea as an agressive and hostile nation which is threatening the world with its missiles. The process ‘say’ seems normal but what North Korea says is not normal at all, it sounds like a declaration of war: ‘Japanese sanctions will bring 'disastrous' response’. VOA has moved the readers to perceive that North Korea is agressive and its action is blameable and unacceptable, thus it deserves condemnation and strong punitive measures from the United Nations. Even the relational process creates a negative impact on North Korea: VOA11 Pyongyang remains defiant after missile launches The word ‘defiant’ which means showing open refusal to obey something suggests the uncooperative attitude of North Korea. To sum up, it is transparent through the transitivity analysis of the selected headlines that VOA represents North Korea negatively. North Korea is assigned the role of both actor and sayer but it performs negative doings and sayings. From VOA’s viewpoint, North Korea is an agressive and hostile nation which possesses missiles- weapon of mass destruction, thus posing big threat to world peace. It therefore deserves punitive measures, even millitary actions. 3.1.2. Nhan Dan Unlike VOA, Nhan Dan seems to have a neutral stance on this issue, thus the headlines from Nhan Dan sound more objective. Instead of mainly representing the US and Japan, it also raises the voice from all the countries involved with a relatively balanced proportion: 47.4% of the processes are attributed to other countries including Russia and China compared to 52.6% to the US and Japan. The transitivity analysis of the headlines from Nhan Dan shows that, like in VOA, all the processes attributed to the US and Japan are either verbal (60%) or material processes (40%). Similar to VOA, the US and Japan play the role of sayer or actor in all of these processes. What is different is the nature of the processes : ND1 Triều Tiên thử tên lửa, Mỹ và Nhật Bản đe dọa trừng phạt ND3 Mỹ đề nghị đàm phán về việc Triều Tiên thử tên lửa ND6 Mỹ đề nghị Trung Quốc thuyết phục Triều Tiên trở lại bàn đàm phán ND8 Mỹ tỏ thất vọng đối với phản ứng của Triều Tiên The verbal process ‘đe dọa’ may also suggest the US- Japan coalition’s power. However, it leaves on the readers a negative impact of this coalition. The process potentially leads the readers to a perception that this coalition may abuse their power to press such a small country as North Korea to do what they want. In other verbal processes, unlike VOA which uses words denoting strong opposition, Nhan Dan employs words that can lighten the reactions: instead of ‘urge’ it uses ‘đề nghị’ which means ‘to suggest’, instead of expressing ‘condemnation’ or ‘criticism’ it uses ‘tỏ thất vọng’ which means ‘to show disappointment’, and the word ‘đàm phán’ is repeated many times. ND2 Trung Quốc quan tâm, Nhật Bản tiếp tục đàm phán về vấn đề tên lửa của Triều Tiên ND13 Nhật Bản xem xét trừng phạt kinh tế đối với Triều Tiên Using the material processes ‘tiếp tục đàm phán’ and ‘xem xét trừng phạt’, Nhan Dan has described Japan as willing to talk and negotiate while in VOA Japan is urging for punitive sanctions against North Korea. With these verbal and material processes, unlike in VOA, Nhan Dan has portrayed the US and Japan as more likely to have negotiation than to take punitive measures, and so it has driven the readers to think of peaceful solutions to the situation. In Nhan Dan, like in VOA, North Korea is involved mainly in verbal (58.3%) and material processes (41.7%). Apart from this similarity, there are differences between the two sources of news concerning the representation of North Korea. Instead of the image of a hostile and agressive North Korea in VOA, Nhan Dan seems to have a more objective view of this country: ND1 Triều Tiên thử tên lửa, Mỹ và Nhật Bản đe dọa trừng phạt ND4 Triều Tiên tuyên bố sẽ tiếp tục thử tên lửa ND6 Mỹ đề nghị Trung Quốc thuyết phục Triều Tiên trở lại bàn đàm phán ND12 Triều Tiên bác bỏ nghị quyết HĐBA Liên hợp quốc We can see that Nhan Dan simply reports what happened without adding any spice to the situation as ‘despite international condemnation’ or ‘provoke international criticism’ in VOA. The verbal processes ‘tuyên bố’ and ‘bác bỏ’ shows that North Korea is given the chance to raise its voice in a very firm manner expressing its confidence, rights and power. The process ‘thuyết phục’ also suggest North Korea’s rights to do what they want. In other words, the processes attributed to North Korea in the selected headlines may imply the newspaper’s respect for North Korea’s independence and sovereignty. What is more, North Korea is given the oppotunity to be supported by other nations as Russia, China and even South Korea, this is particularly important because North Korea is never given such a chance in VOA : ND7 Trung Quốc phản đối hành động cứng rắn đối với Triều Tiên ND14 Hàn Quốc phản đối các biện pháp trừng phạt thêm của Mỹ đối với Triều Tiên The verbal process ‘phản đối’ (object) strongly indicates that North Korea has also gained support from members of the six-party talks, which is contrary to VOA where North Korea is isolated and seen as opposed to the international community. In short, the transitivity analysis of the headlines in Nhan Dan suggests an objective representation of North Korea in contrast to its negative image in VOA. Nhan Dan has portrayed North Korea as a state which has its own independence and sovereignty and which has bravely raised its strong voice to protect itself. 3.2. Analysis of Full-text News Reports As we have analyzed, the representations of the US- Japan coalition and North Korea in VOA and Nhan Dan’s headlines are different and the differences are reinforced in the full-text news reports. In this part, we will investigate the following discourse features and strategies: naming referents, lexicalization, over-lexicalization, and quotation patterns. 3.2.1. Naming referents 3.2.1.1. VOA The analysis of naming referents in VOA reveals that naming referents for the US- Japan coalition are all formal and neutral, which shows VOA’s respectfulness toward the US- Japan coalition while North Korea has some names carrying negative values showing disrespectfulness. This is shown in the table below : Table 1. Names for US-Japan coalition and North Korea in VOA The US- Japan coalition North Korea Governments the United States (x28) Japan (x30) Washington (x12) Tokyo (x5) Pentagon (x3) the Defense Department (x2) the Bush Administration North Korea (x106) Pyongyang (x43) the North (x11) the impoverished communist state the impoverished Stalinist nation the impoverished North the isolated communist nation North Korea's foreign ministry (x3) Pyongyang's Foreign Ministry its (North Korea’s) regime the regime that's in power in Pyongyang Officials President Bush (x2) U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (x2) Assistant Secretary of State Christopher Hill (x2) Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Shinzo Abe Abe (x2) Alexander Vershbow, the U.S. ambassador to South Korea (x2) Vershbow (x2) Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi (x2) Mr. Koizumi Spokesman Bryan Whitman Whitman (x3) the Pentagon spokesman (x2) Japan's U.N. Ambassador Kenzo Oshima Washington's U.N. Ambassador John Bolton Ri Pyung Dok, a policy researcher at North Korea's Foreign Ministry in Pyongyang (x2) Ri Pyongyang's U.N. envoy Pak Gil Yon A North Korean announcer We can see VOA’s negative attitude towards North Korea in such names as: ‘the impoverished communist state’, ‘the impoverished Stalinist nation’, ‘the impoverished North’, and ‘the isolated communist nation’. In their eyes, North Korea is a poor and small country, thus having no power in the international community. Not only that, its communist government has isolated itself from the whole world with its policies and no country would help or support it. Another salient naming referent used for North Korea’s government in VOA is ‘regime’ as in: ‘its regime’ or ‘the regime that's in power in Pyongyang’. When a government is called a regime, it usually means that the government is not elected in a fair way. With this negative word, North Korea is portrayed as an enemy not only of the US but also of the fair and democratic world. Using such naming referents, VOA has evoked disrespectfulness and hatred for the North Korean government among readers. 3.2.1.2. Nhan Dan Different from VOA, Nhan Dan’s naming referents reveal the newspaper’s respect and equal treatment toward both the US- Japan coalition and North Korea: Table 2. Names for US-Japan coalition and North Korea in Nhan Dan The US- Japan coalition North Korea Governments Mỹ (x42) Nhật Bản (x21) Mỹ và Nhật Bản (x2) Chính phủ Nhật Bản (x3) Bộ Ngoại giao Mỹ Bộ Ngoại giao Nhật Bản Bộ quốc phòng Nhật Bản Nhà Trắng Triều Tiên (x88) Bình Nhưỡng (x11) Bộ Ngoại giao Triều Tiên (x4) Officials Tổng thống Bush Tổng thống Mỹ George W Bush Shinzo Abe, chánh văn phòng nội các Nhật Bản trưởng phát ngôn viên chính phủ Nhật Shinzo Abe Chánh văn phòng nội các kiêm trưởng phát ngôn viên chính phủ Nhật Bản Shinzo Abe ông Shinzo Abe ông Abe Ngoại trưởng Rice Ngoại trưởng Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ C. Rice Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ Condoleezza Rice Bà Rice Bộ trưởng Quốc phòng Donald Rumsfeld Trợ lý Ngoại trưởng Mỹ Christopher Hill Trợ lý Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ Christopher Hill ông Christopher Hill đặc phái viên Mỹ về vấn đề Triều Tiên Christopher Hill trưởng đoàn đàm phán hạt nhân của Mỹ Christopher Hill Ông Hill (x2) cố vấn an ninh quốc gia Mỹ Hadley Cố vấn an ninh quốc gia Mỹ Stephen Hadley Đại sứ Mỹ tại LHQ John Bolton (x2) John Bolton, đại sứ Mỹ tại Liên hợp quốc Đại sứ Mỹ John Bolton Hai quan chức Bộ Ngoại giao Mỹ, yêu cầu được giấu tên Giới chức ngoại giao Mỹ Thủ tướng Nhật Junichiro Koizumi ông Koizumi Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Nhật Bản Aso Taro Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Nhật Bản Taro Aso Ngoại trưởng Nhật Taro Aso Đại sứ Nhật Bản, Kenzo Oshima (x2) Thứ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ Nicholas Burns Ông Burns ông Han Song Ryol, Phó Trưởng đoàn đàm phán của Triều Tiên tại LHQ một quan chức Bộ Ngoại giao Triều Tiên một quan chức thuộc Bộ ngoại giao Triều Tiên tại Bình Nhưỡng ông Ri Các nhà ngoại giao Triều Tiên Phó Chủ tịch Ủy ban Thường vụ Hội nghị nhân dân tối cao Triều Tiên Yang Hyong Sop ông Yang The table shows that names for the US- Japan coalition and North Korea are both neutral and formal. The governments are referred to formally and the officials are also called formally by title plus their full names of last names. No names carrying negative ideological connotations are counted. It could be suggested by the analysis of naming referents that Nhan Dan represents the US- Japan coalition and North Korea in a similar manner which shows respect and equal treatment toward them both. 3.2.2. Lexicalization Lexicalization is the strategy to do with lexical choices. Examining choices of wordings will contribute to making explicit ideological differences embedded in the new stories. In this section, we will choose to focus on two most prominent phenomena: the wording for North Korea’s activities and the wording for the US- Japan coalition’s activities. 3.2.2.1. VOA There is a great deal of evidence which proves that VOA’s lexicalization works toward portraying North Korea as posing a threat to the world security by producing and testing its missiles and defying international criticism. Table 3. Negativization of North Korea’s activities in VOA Source Negative words describing North Korea’s activities VOA2 has defended his country's right to launch missiles increase North Korea's isolation sparking condemnation from several countries worsen North Korea's isolation and hurt its relationship with Seoul threatens Japan's air and maritime traffic developing nuclear weapons isolate itself from the international community VOA3 has also refused to end its nuclear weapons program the North intended to intimidate the United States and its allies in Asia, but the plan may have backfired “it could not threaten the United States directly… But it has been so provocative, it has been so inattentive to international concerns” provoke China's historic enemy, Japan VOA6 Defying weeks of international warnings refusing to return to six-nation talks on implementing a pledge it made to stop developing nuclear weapons VOA7 North Korea's development, deployment and proliferation of missiles and missile-related materials, equipment and technology pose a threat to the region and to the world VOA9 staged a series of provocative missile tests developing missiles or weapons of mass destruction VOA10 issued defiant words in response to broad international criticism of its missile launches will conduct more missile tests, as a means of enhancing what Pyongyang calls its "self-defensive deterrent" warns that North Korea will take unspecified "stronger physical actions" against any country that dares to pressure it over the launches defied multiple warnings and expressions of concern from friends and foes alike pressuring Washington into one-on-one talks with Pyongyang VOA16 brushed off the criticism, and instead renewed requests for massive transfers of unconditional food aid for the North's shattered economy did not respond to Seoul's criticism about the missiles repeated a request for South Korea to provide 500,000 tons of rice to the impoverished North defended its "Songun," or "Army First" policy, under which military expenditures take up the overwhelming share of North Korea's tiny national budget boycotted a continuation of those talks in protest of financial sanctions imposed by Washington money laundering and counterfeiting the North Korean response had been "discouraging" VOA17 “disappearing from the face of the earth” “they see themselves as a little country surrounded by giants. So they are wary and suspicious” “express a fair amount of hostility, even contempt for the Chinese” “look for opportunities, in some sense, to put their thumb in the Chinese eye” “there was a message to be sent to China and to South Korea and to Japan about North Korea and what it could do to the regional players” “increase a number of complexities in the region that make China uncomfortable” In the table, there is a huge collection of highly negative words used to describe North Korea’s activities in VOA. North Korea is described as a state which is involved in developing nuclear weapons, threatening other countries, isolating itself from the international community and provoking international criticism. What is more, North Korea is involved in such illegal activities as money laundering and counterfeiting. These negative words may create disrespectfulness and hatred for North Korea among the readers. Not only that, VOA has worsened the relationship between North Korea and China who has been considered North Korea's staunchest ally with these negative words as suspicious, hostility, contempt or the intention to put their thumb in the Chinese eye. It is transparent that these lexical choices diminish the good relationship between the two countries and contribute to isolate North Korea. These words demonstrate VOA’s negative judgment of North Korea’s activities. On the contrary, the US- Japan coalition is portrayed as performing positive activities and having great power in the world: Table 4. Positivization of the US- Japan coalition’s activities in VOA Source Positive words describing the US- Japan coalition’s activities VOA2 Japan barred from its ports a North Korean ferry ready to provide financial and diplomatic benefits to the North if it ends its nuclear programs VOA3 have been very vocal for weeks in urging North Korea not to carry out the missile tests have indicated they will likely pursue U.N. sanctions VOA4 condemning the launches as a provocation Tokyo on Wednesday imposed new sanctions on Pyongyang, including barring a North Korean ferry from going to Japan have condemned the launches and warned they could deepen North Korea's isolation VOA6 expressed alarm about the latest launch have condemned the launches as provocations quickly responded by barring a North Korean ferry from its ports indicated more punitive action may be on the way ready to provide financial and diplomatic benefits to the North if it ends its nuclear programs VOA7 detected all seven North Korean missile launches and determined quickly that they were not a threat to the United States or its territories was fully aware of the North Korean launches, and was able to assess their significance almost immediately the Defense Department was prepared to respond to the North Korean launches if that had been necessary VOA9 Japan is urging the U.N. Security Council to impose sanctions on North Korea for its barrage of missile launches Japan introduced a strongly-worded draft Security Council resolution Wednesday calls for sanctions to prevent Pyongyang from receiving funds, material or technology that could be used in developing missiles or weapons of mass destruction Tokyo has already imposed its own penalties in response to the North Korean tests VOA10 cooperate on diplomatic steps to address the issue the Bush Administration has ruled out bilateral talks The US- Japan coalition is described to be ready to provide financial and diplomatic benefits to North Korea, which is supposed to be a very positive and generous action they can do to the poor country. They also express their power in the international community by warning and condemning North Korea’s tests. Without the UN resolution, Japan has already imposed its own penalties on North Korea, barring from its ports a North Korean ferry that carries cash, food and gifts. VOA also indicates the US’s military strength with words reporting that the US detected all seven North Korean missile launches and determined quickly that they were not a threat to the United States or its territories and the Defense Department is ready for action in response to North Korea’s tests. Through the positive lexicalization, VOA explicitly associates the US and Japan with positive values and goals. 3.2.2.2. Nhan Dan The analysis of lexicalization shows that in Nhan Dan the wordings for North Korea’s and the US- Japan coalition’s activities are neutral and objective, which indicates the newspaper’s neutral viewpoint on the issue. Table 5. Lexicalization of North Korea’s activities in Nhan Dan Source Words describing North Korea’s activities ND1 đã thử hàng loạt tên lửa vào sáng sớm hôm nay ND2 đã phóng tên lửa thứ 7 nói với các phóng viên Nhật Bản tại Bình Nhưỡng rằng, chính quyền nước này hoàn toàn có quyền thử nghiệm tên lửa thừa nhận có vụ thử tên lửa ND3 đã ngừng đàm phán sáu bên vào tháng 11-2005 sau khi Washington áp dụng trừng phạt tài chính đối với nước này ND6 cảnh báo sẽ có các biện pháp mạnh nếu LHQ thông qua trừng phạt ND11 tuyên bố ''bác bỏ hoàn toàn nghị quyết'' và cho biết sẽ tiếp tục phóng thêm nhiều tên lửa ND12 bác bỏ nghị quyết của Hội đồng Bảo an Liên hợp quốc lên án các vụ thử tên lửa của nước này và cho biết Triều Tiên sẽ tiếp tục xây dựng kho vũ khí của mình nói rằng Bình Nhưỡng sẽ không bị ràng buộc bởi nghị quyết này Table 6. Lexicalization of the US-Japan coalition’s activities in Nhan Dan Source Words describing the US-Japan coalition’s activities ND1 tổ chức họp báo khẩn gọi các vụ thử gây bất ổn lớn cho hoà bình và ổn định tại khu vực tuyên bố về khả năng sẽ trừng phạt Triều Tiên ND2 Thủ tướng Nhật Junichiro Koizumi tuyên bố nước này sẽ tiếp tục đàm phán tuy vẫn gây áp lực với Triều Tiên chính phủ Nhật Bản đã bắt đầu áp đặt các lệnh trừng phạt trả đũa Bình Nhưỡng ND3 Mỹ nói rằng việc nối lại đàm phán sáu bên là cách tốt nhất để giải quyết “cuộc khủng hoảng” Triều Tiên cho biết các vụ thử tên lửa càng khiến Triều Tiên bị cô lập hơn Mỹ một lần nữa đã bác bỏ việc đàm phán trực tiếp với Triều Tiên kêu gọi trừng phạt Triều Tiên ND6 Mỹ đã đề nghị Trung Quốc tìm cách thuyết phục Triều Tiên trở lại bàn đàm phán Đại sứ Nhật Bản Kendo Oshima đã chính thức đệ trình dự thảo nghị quyết trong đó đề nghị áp đặt các biện pháp trừng phạt Triều Tiên ND9 yêu cầu tiến hành biểu quyết sớm ND11 Ngoại trưởng Nhật Taro Aso kêu gọi Triều Tiên tuân thủ quyết định của HĐBA. Đại sứ Mỹ John Bolton nói HĐBA đã phát đi thông điệp rõ ràng, nhất trí tới Bình Nhưỡng. Quan chức này tuyên bố nếu Bình Nhưỡng không tuân thủ nghị quyết, HĐBA sẽ có hành động mạnh hơn. It is clearly evident in the data that Nhan Dan objectively reports North Korea’s and the US-Japan coalition’s activities. Neutral lexicalization is employed to show the newspaper’s respect and equal treatment toward the countries involved. 3.2.3. Over-lexicalization 3.2.3.1. VOA VOA uses the strategy of over-lexicalization to visualize the threats arising from North Korea’s missile launches in order to provoke condemnation of North Korea and highlight the need to apply punitive measures to North Korea : Table 7. Over-lexicalization of the North Korea’s missile launches in VOA Source References to the North Korea’s missile launches VOA2 the launches (x4) / launch (x3)/ Wednesday's launches by Pyongyang/ the North Korean launch/ the North Korean missile launches/ missile tests/ The North Korean tests/ these latest missile tests/ a long-range missile test/ a threat to peace/ a clear offense/ a gamble VOA3 the launches/ launch/ a North Korean missile threat/ test-fire/ the missile tests (x2) / the North Korean missile tests VOA4 the launches (x3) / launch (x3) / a provocation VOA6 the launches (x5) / launch (x2) / test-launch/ the latest launch/ a seventh launch/ The seventh launch/ the first launches/ the North's launches/ a missile test / The North Korean tests / missile tests / these latest missile tests / a threat to peace/ a provocation/ provocations VOA7 launch (x2) / seven North Korean missile launches/ the North Korean launches (x3) / Each and every launch/ the missile launches/ those launched by North Korea/ missile launches/ its launch/ a threat to the United States (x3) / a threat/ a threat to the region and to the world VOA9 missile launches (x3) / North Korea's 1998 missile launch/ the North Korean tests/ the latest tests/ missile development and testing/ the tests/ a series of provocative missile tests/ the North Korean provocation VOA10 the launches (x4) / launch/ missile launches (x2) / the seven missile launches Wednesday/ missile tests (x2) / test firing/ a serious provocation VOA16 its test launch of missiles/ its launch of at least seven missiles/ launch VOA17 Korean Missile Launches/ Pyongyang's recent test launching/ the launch/ Pyongyang's missile launches/ the tests (x2) As can be seen from table 7, there is a highly frequent reference made to North Korea’s missile launches, among which the most frequent are missile launches, missile tests or the North Korean missile launches (the word launch is repeated 61 times, and test 25 times). What is remarkably important here is that VOA has called the launches with a wide range of negative words such as a threat to peace (the word threat is repeated 8 times), a clear offense, a gamble or especially a provocation. VOA uses this strategy of over-lexicalization, referring to North Korea’s missile launches in such an explicit, repetitive and overt manner, to construct a perception that North Korea is provoking the whole world with its missiles, and it is a big threat to world peace, thus North Korea deserves international condemnation and punitive actions. 3.2.3.2. Nhan Dan Nhan Dan also over-lexicalizes the North Korea’s missile launches but not to build the image of an enemy like VOA. The data in Table 8 shows that the words for the launches are all neutral, which well indicates the neutral viewpoint of the newspaper. Unlike VOA, Nhan Dan does not use such negative words as provocation, offense or threat to refer to the launches. The strategy of over-lexicalization is exploited just to serve the purpose of objectively reporting the news. Table 8. Over-lexicalization of the North Korea’s missile launches in Nhan Dan Source References to the North Korea’s missile launches ND1 Triều Tiên đã thử hàng loạt tên lửa/ Triều Tiên còn bắn thử một tên lửa Scud và một tên lửa Rodong/ việc phóng tên lửa/ Triều Tiên đã thử một tên lửa Taepodong-1 ND2 Triều Tiên đã phóng tên lửa thứ 7/ Triều Tiên đã phóng ít nhất 6 quả tên lửa trong vòng 4 giờ/ nước láng giềng phía bắc đã phóng 10 tên lửa/ thử nghiệm tên lửa/ Thử tên lửa/ việc phóng tên lửa/ vụ thử tên lửa/ Bình Nhưỡng phóng thử nghiệm hàng loạt tên lửa/ Triều Tiên phóng tên lửa thứ 7 ND3 nước này bắn thử tên lửa/ các vụ thử tên lửa của Triều Tiên (x2) / các vụ thử tên lửa/ việc Triều Tiên thử tên lửa/ vấn đề Triều Tiên thử tên lửa/ vụ thử tên lửa của Triều Tiên/ việc Triều Tiên phóng thử tên lửa/ Triều Tiên thử tên lửa tầm xa ND6 nước này tiến hành thử tên lửa/ Triều Tiên thử bảy quả tên lửa/ việc Triều Tiên phóng thử tên lửa ND7 nước này bắn thử tên lửa ND9 vấn đề tên lửa của Triều Tiên (x2)/ việc Triều Tiên phóng thử tên lửa/ các hoạt động thử tên lửa/ việc thử tên lửa của Triều Tiên/ tiến hành thử tên lửa/ vấn đề Triều Tiên thử tên lửa ND11 việc Triều Tiên phóng thử tên lửa/ các chương trình thử tên lửa/ chương trình phát triển tên lửa của Triều Tiên/ chương trình tên lửa đạn đạo/ tiếp tục phóng thêm nhiều tên lửa/ việc Triều Tiên phóng thử tên lửa/ các vụ thử tên lửa của nước này ND12 các vụ thử tên lửa/ chương trình tên lửa đạn đạo/ Triều Tiên bắn thử bảy tên lửa/ Triều Tiên có vụ thử tên lửa hôm 4 và 5-7 3.2.4. Quotation patterns 3.2.4.1. VOA VOA tends to use quotations in a manner that ensures the US-Japan coalition’s power and portrays them as the definers of the affairs described. North Korea, on the other hand, is portrayed as being incredible sayers, having little to say, thus being marginalized out of power. This can be seen through the analysis of quotation patterns below. Table 9. Quotation patterns of news reports in VOA Source Sayer North Korea US-Japan coalition War-protestors VOA2 Ri Pyung Dok, a policy researcher at North Korea's Foreign Ministry in Pyongyang, told…, said… Leaders in the United States and around Asia say… Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Shinzo Abe said…, called…, said…, also said… Japan, the United States, South Korea, Russia and China say… Alexander Vershbow, the U.S. ambassador to South Korea, said “” VOA3 Japanese diplomats confirmed… Leonard Spector says…, said “”, believe… Washington and Tokyo have indicated… VOA4 Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi confirmed…, said…, says…, also says… U.S., South Korean and Japanese leaders warned… VOA6 Ri Pyung Dok told…, says… Washington says… Defense officials in South Korea, the United States, and Japan confirmed… Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi expressed…, says…, says…, but adds… The United States condemned … The NATO military alliance called… Officials (Japan) indicated… Alexander Vershbow stressed…, says “” China expressed…, urged… VOA7 The Defense Department says…, says… Spokesman Bryan Whitman says…, said “”, says…, said “”, confirmed…, said “”, says…, said “”, said… VOA9 North Korea's foreign ministry described… A ministry official said… Japan is urging… Japan's U.N. Ambassador Kenzo Oshima said…, called…, said “” Washington's U.N. Ambassador John Bolton says…, said “” China's Ambassador to the U.N. Wang Guangya calls…, but suggests…, said “” Russia's U.N. Ambassador Vitaly Churkin agrees…, says…, said “” VOA10 North Korean media proclaimed… A North Korean announcer reads…, goes on to say…, says…, warns… the Bush Administration says… VOA16 Washington says… Christopher Hill said… VOA17 Daniel Sneider, a China expert at Stanford University's Asia-Pacific Research Center, says…, says “” Daniel Pinkston, a Korea specialist at the Center for Nonproliferation Studies in Monterey, California, says…, says “” Jim Walsh says “” Daniel Sneider says “” Sneider and others say… Adam Segal says…, says “” Experts say… Daniel Pinkston says…, says “” Daniel Sneider says…, says “”, says…, says… 11 (13.3%) 64 (77.1%) 8 (9.6%) Note : Three dots symbol (…) means indirect reporting, quotation marks (“”) indicate direct quotation. As revealed in Table 9, the representatives of the US- Japan coalition are quoted far more often and more extensively (77.1%) than the ones of North Korea (13.3%) and the war-protestors (9.6%). The war-protestors here mainly refer to Russia and China who oppose millitary actions against North Korea. In the news discourse under analysis, the activities of North Korea are often told from the perspective of the US and Japan. When reporting about the missile launches, for instance, the US and Japanese officials’ opinions are quoted much more. What is particularly important here is that VOA seems to focus on describing the launches as a threat to the world rather than to discuss why North Korea had to do this. The activities of the US-Japan coalition, on the contrary, are often quoted from high-ranking officials from the US and Japan, and the North Korean voice is not heard. It can be seen through the analysis of quotation patterns that VOA is more on the side of the US- Japan coalition, thus disfavouring the North Korean opinions. 3.2.4.2. Nhan Dan Different from VOA, Nhan Dan quoted more from North Korea (22%) and less from the US- Japan coalition (47.5%). What is remarkably different is that the quotations from war-protestors are much more (30%) : Table 10. Quotation patterns of news reports in Nhan Dan Source Sayer North Korea US-Japan coalition War-protestors ND1 ông Han Song Ryol, Phó Trưởng đoàn đàm phán của Triều Tiên tại LHQ lại khẳng định “” Bình Nhưỡng cho biết… Bộ Ngoại giao Nhật Bản cho biết… Giới chức Hàn Quốc, Mỹ và Nhật cho hay… Hai quan chức Bộ Ngoại giao Mỹ khẳng định… Chính phủ Nhật Bản gọi… Shinzo Abe, chánh văn phòng nội các Nhật Bản, nhận định “”,cho biết…, tuyên bố “” Cố vấn an ninh quốc gia Mỹ Stephen Hadley cho biết… Đại sứ Mỹ tại KHQ John Bolton cho biết…, tuyên bố “” ND2 một quan chức Bộ Ngoại giao Triều Tiên nói… ông Ri Pyong Dok, một nhà nghiên cứu về các vấn đề Nhật Bản thuộc Bộ Ngoại giao Triều Tiên, nói “” một quan chức thuộc Bộ ngoại giao Triều Tiên tại Bình Nhưỡng thừa nhận… ông Ri khẳng định… Thủ tướng Nhật Junichiro Koizumi tuyên bố…, nói “” Chánh văn phòng nội các kiêm trưởng phát ngôn viên chính phủ Nhật Bản Shinzo Abe tuyên bố “” Người phát ngôn Bộ Ngoại giao Trung Quốc Lưu Kiến Siêu cho biết…, nói… ND3 Mỹ nói rằng… Bộ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ Condoleezza Rice nói rằng…, cho biết… Tổng thống Mỹ George W Bush cho biết… Nhà Trắng cho biết… Đại sứ Mỹ tại LHQ John Bolton nhấn mạnh…, bày tỏ hy vọng… Đại sứ Nhật Bản, Kenzo Oshima nói “” Nga và Trung Quốc tuyên bố… Trung Quốc tuyên bố… Đại sứ Nga tại LHQ Vitaly Churkin cho rằng… ND6 Các nhà ngoại giao Triều Tiên cảnh báo… Thứ trưởng Ngoại giao Mỹ Nicholas Burns nói rằng…, cho biết… đặc phái viên Mỹ về vấn đề Triều Tiên Christopher Hill cũng cho biết…, nói “” ND7 Phó Chủ tịch Ủy ban Thường vụ Hội nghị nhân dân tối cao Triều Tiên Yang Hyong Sop khẳng định… Ông Hồ Cẩm Đào, Tổng Bí thư kiêm Chủ tịch nước Trung Quốc, nói rằng…, hy vọng rằng…, nói rằng…, nói “”,kêu gọi…, nói rằng… ND9 Trung Quốc và Nga kêu gọi… Đại diện của Trung Quốc tại LHQ Vương Quang Á cho biết…, bày tỏ hy vọng… Đại diện của Nga tại LHQ Vitaly Churkin nói…, nói “” ND11 Triều Tiên tuyên bố “”, cho biết… Ngoại trưởng Nhật Taro Aso kêu gọi… Đại sứ Mỹ John Bolton nói…, tuyên bố… Đại sứ Trung Quốc tại LHQ Vương Quang Á cho biết… ND12 Triều Tiên cho biết… Bộ Ngoại giao Triều Tiên đã mô tả…, nói rằng… Trung Quốc đã đe doạ… 13 (22%) 28 (47.5%) 18 (30.5%) The quotation patterns in Nhan Dan are much more balanced than in VOA, which shows the newspaper’s respect and equal treatment to all the countries involved. War-protestors become a reliable and important source of information in Nhan Dan. Again, the newspaper’s neutral viewpoint is well proved through the quotation patterns. CONCLUSION A summary of the findings Through the analysis at two stages, the transitivity analysis of selected headlines and the analysis of the most prominent discursive features and strategies in sampled full-text news reports, it is transparent that there are significant differences in the representations of North Korea and the US- Japan coalition in VOA and Nhan Dan during the time in question. They are differences in the processes and roles assigned to these two main participants in the headlines and in the discursive moves and practices employed by the two sources of news in sampled full-text reports: naming referents, lexicalization, over-lexicalization and quotation patterns. These differences serve as sound evidence to prove that VOA and Nhan Dan encoded different ideologies in their news discourse. The transitivity analysis of selected headlines from VOA and Nhan Dan revealed different representations of the US- Japan coalition and North Korea, which were achieved through different processes and roles assigned to these two groups of participants by the two sources of news. Whereas VOA generated a positive image of the US- Japan coalition and a negative one of North Korea, Nhan Dan shows its respect for North Korea’s independence and sovereignty, thus it objectively represents North Korea and the US- Japan coalition. The analysis of naming referent reveals that VOA shows its respect toward the US- Japan coalition with formal and neutral names and disrespect toward North Korea with names carrying negative values, meanwhile Nhan Dan is more objective in choosing names to refer to these both groups of participants. By using neutral and formal names to refer to both North Korea and the US- Japan coalition, Nhan Dan treated them equally and viewed them as having equal right and power. The analysis of lexicalization further supports the findings in the previous sections. VOA described North Korea’s activities with a huge collection of highly negative words portraying North Korea as posing a threat to world peace while the US- Japan coalition is portrayed as performing positive activities and having great power in the international community. On the contrary, Nhan Dan employed neutral lexicalization to show respect toward both groups of participants. The discursive strategy of over-lexicalization is used by both news sources, but to serve different purposes. It is obvious that over-lexicalization is used in VOA as a means to disfavour North Korea, thus provoking international condemnation of its tests. This purpose is achieved from the use of lexical cohesive devices repetition and synonymy to over-lexicalize North Korea’s missile launches. The strategy of over-lexicalization is used in Nhan Dan just to serve the purpose of objectively reporting the events without condemning any particular country. Through the quotation patterns, VOA enhanced the US- Japan coalition’s status, importance and power by raising voice of its representatives and marginalized North Korea out of power by devoicing its representative: the US- Japan coalition is quoted nearly 6 times more frequently than North Korea. In Nhan Dan, North Korea is quoted much more and war-protestors become a reliable and important source of information. In conclusion, it is clearly evident through the analysis that VOA and Nhan Dan demonstrate different ideological stances on the US- Japan coalition and North Korea. VOA supports the US- Japan coalition’s condemnation of North Korea’s missile tests, works towards forming the public view in disfavour of North Korea and in favour of the US- Japan coalition. VOA persuades the public to trust the coalition’s power and to support its decision to impose punitive measures on North Korea. Unlike VOA, Nhan Dan has a neutral viewpoint on the issue, thus it works toward creating an objective view on the events and shows equal treatment and respect toward both the groups of participants. In a broad sense, the analysis obviously proves that discourse or the use of language is a medium for expressing ‘attitudes’ or various forms of social relations. Suggestions for further research Within the limitation of a minor thesis, the research focuses only on the written text of the news discourse in a relatively short period of time from two sources of news and studies certain discursive strategies, it is suggested that other researchers: Carry out a research on a larger database so as to ensure more reliable and less tentative conclusions. Collect data from other sources of news so as to make more generalized conclusions. 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