Đề tài Nghiên cứu cách dịch thuật ngữ chuyên ngành kinh tế (a study on the translation of economic terminology a case study on the economic textbooks )

Commission (FTC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Fair Credit Billing Act (FCBA), Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) 2.2.2. Above- word- level term Technical or scientific terms as well as economic terms in particular are normally formed by compounding. Of all the compound terms in the textbook investigated, noun compounds appear in the form of nominal group as proposed by Mark Halliday (1985) make up the highest proportion. For instance, on page 211 the total terms are 70 of which noun compound terms are 27 holding nearly 38 % such as future goods, sale contract, initial investment, lease of goods, amount of capital, annual income, real property, etc., The ratio is 20/45, about 46% on page 226. For example: void title, voidable title, injured party, warranty of title, express warranty, marketable title, etc., On page 246 the number is 24 of total 60 terms, about 40 %. For example: breach of contract, improper goods, value of goods, contract terms, sales agreement, replevin of goods, writ of replevin, sale agreement, international sale, and so on. 2.2.2.1. Nominal group Before examining the terms in the textbook which are in the form of nominal group, the experiential structure of the nominal group will be discussed briefly. According to Mark Halliday (1985), the Nominal Group structure contains the Thing (head noun), preceded by various items including Deitic, Numerative, Epithet, and Classifier and followed by Qualifier: • Deictic: The deictic element indicates whether or not some specific subset of the Thing is intended with such specific words as this, these, that, those, my, your, her.. or non-specific like a, an, each, all, every, etc.,. For instance, these innocent purchasers, all sales contracts, etc., • Numerative: The numerative element shows some numerical feature of the subset either quantity (one, two, three…), or order (first, second, third…), either exact (one, two, three…) or inexact (few, little, several…) like second mortgage, first option, first entry… • Epithet: The Epithet indicates some quality of the subset. This may be an objective property of the thing itself or it may be an expression of the speaker’s subjective attitude towards it, for instance strict liability, insurable interest, common law, void title, voidable title, initial investment, future goods, etc., • Classifier: The classifier indicates a particular subclass of the thing in question; it can be an adjective or a noun. For instance, sales contract, sales agreement, preference capital, business transaction… Verbs also appear in the nominal group and function as Epithet or Classifier in one of the two forms as following: Present participle, V-ing such as warehousing entry or past participle, V-ed as in inscribed stock. When these forms function as Epithet, they usually have the sense of the finite tense of which the present participle means ‘which is (was/will be)…..ing’, and the past participle means ‘which has (had/will have) been …ed. For examples: floating capital (the capital which is floating), identified goods (goods which have been identified) When these forms function as Classifier, they typically have the sense of a simple present, active or passive like conforming goods (goods which conforms with the obligation under the contract) Sometimes the same word may function either as Epithet or Classifier, with a difference in meaning as in revolving fund can be interpreted as either Classifier ‘of the kind which revolves’ or Epithet ‘which is revolving’ • Thing: The Thing is the semantic core of the nominal group, which may be common noun, proper noun, or personal noun. For example: international law, strict liability, forced payment, etc., • Qualifier: The Qualifier follows the Thing and characterizes it. The qualifier can be a relative clause or a prepositional phrase. For examples: amount of goods, document of title, writ of replevin, inspection of goods… 2.2.2.2. Economic above-word level terms in the form of nominal group Based on the classification mentioned above, the economic terms investigated might be classified in the form of nominal group with their sub-classes as follows: 2.2.2.2.1. Classifier (Noun) + Thing This group of compounds Noun + Noun consisting of two nouns of which the first noun functions as classifier and helps to distinguish the second noun from the other concepts of the same group. For instance: Stock market: a market for the sale and purchase of securities Balance sheet: financial statement summarizing a firm’s assets, liabilities and net worth Business cycle: periodic fluctuation in the economy Labour union: association of workers formed to promote the interests of their members Law merchant: the commercial law developed by merchant who needed a set of rules to govern their business transaction Bulk transfer: any transfer of the major part of the materials, supplies, etc., of an enterprise that is not in the ordinary course of the transferor’s business Future goods: goods that are not yet in existence or not yet under control of people Price control: Government-imposed restrictions against price Import quota: a legal limit on the mount of a particular commodity that can be imported 2.2.2.2.2. Classifier (Adjective) + Thing In the textbook, the compounds Adjective + Noun consists of an Adjective and a Noun of which Adjective functions as Classifier and the head Noun (thing), combining together are the most frequently used in the form of nominal group, for example: Final goods: goods sold to the final purchaser General tariff: a tariff that applies to imports from countries that do not enjoy special trade concessions Horizontal merger: combination of companies in the same business Common stock: a security that represents ownership n a corporation Elastic currency: supply of money expands and contracts with the needs of business Perfect competition: a market for uniform products in which there are many buyers and sellers, no one of which is big enough to affect the price Economic growth: average increase in an economy’s total output over a period of time The classifier can be further modified by another subclassifier which is in the form of a noun, or an adjective, for instance: local production value, natural resources allocation, regular income tax, etc., 2.2.2.2.3. Classifier / Epithet (Present Participle) + Thing In this group of compound V-ing + Noun, V-ing sometimes functions as Classifier as in floating capital which means the capital which floats. In some other case V-ing functions as Epithet as in shopping goods. Other examples are as follows: Conforming goods: goods that are in accordance with the obligation under the contract Nonconforming goods: those that are not the same as those called for under the contract Dunning letters: letters requesting payment Dumping price: selling the same goods for a lower price 2.2.2.2.4. Classifier / Epithet (Past Participle) + Thing In this group of Compound, similar to the group of Compound in 2.2.2.2.3, sometimes V-ed functions as Classifier as in affiliated company which means that company wholly or partly owned by another company, but in some other cases V-ed functions as Epithet as in balanced budget which means a financial plan in which expenses exactly equal income. Here are some more examples of this type: Identified goods: specific goods that have been selected as the subject matter of the contract Implied warranty: a warranty imposed by law rather than by statements given by the seller. Limited warranty: any warranty does not meet all of the requirement for a full warranty Mixed economy: economic system that combines elements of public ownership of the means of production with private ownership Unlimited liability: requirement that the owner assume full responsibility for all loses or debts of a business Preferred stock: stock that receives a specified divident before any dividends are paid in common stock Discounted loan: loan from which interest is deducted in advance 2.2.2.2.5 Thing + Qualifier Most of the investigated Qualifiers in the textbook are prepositional phrases, therefore this group of compound combines Noun + Preposition + Noun as in the following examples: Law of supply: seller will offer more of a product at a higher price and less at a lower price Velocity of money: the ratio of nominal expenditure to the money supply. Balance of payment: summary of the flow of international transactions Balance of trade: the difference between the export and import of merchandise Demand for money: The amount of money that someone desires to hold expressed as a function of the volume of spending. In summary, through the observation of the terms investigated in the textbook we can come to a conclusion that economic terms including one-word terms and above-word-level terms account for a remarkable proportion and contribute essential information on definitions, concepts and processes. The classification of these terms will be of great importance as we move on the translation of economic terms in the next chapter. Chapter three The English - Vietnamese translation of economic terms We have dealt with the classification of compound terms in the textbook according to their grammatical composition. In this chapter with the aim of finding out the different ways of translating economic terminology in the textbook, we shall study the English –Vietnamese translation of economic terminology at word and above-word-level on the basis of theory of translation presented in chapter 1 and analysis of economic terminology in chapter 2. 3.1. The translation of economic terms at word level from English into Vietnamese In this section we are exploring the translation of one-word terms from English into Vietnamese. We shall in turn find out what are the common problems with one-word terms and what strategies and procedures of translation have been employed effectively in dealing with the translation of economic one-word terms. The economic one-word terms hold a remarkable proportion in comparison with compound terms. The terms investigated are in the field of Business Law: Sales and Consumer Protection. Therefore, the translation of these terms is influenced by several factors such as translation of Neologisms and technical terms, register, and the problems of non-equivalence. We just find out the terms that are influenced by the same factors when being translated from English into Vietnamese in the following procedures and strategies. 3.1.1. Translation by recognized translation This strategy is used in the translation of the terms which are considered as subtechnical terms or old words with new sense as mentioned in 1.1.4.2.1. These terms already exist in the TL language with their basic nuclear meaning. Yet, when used in a professional specific scale they acquire new typical meaning of that field, meanwhile they still keep their basic nuclear meanings. Therefore, it is necessary for the translators to take into account the notion of the field register to find out the closest equivalent in meaning so as to make the term accurate and appropriate in the language of the field. For example, act (n) has the meaning as something done; a deed, when used in business law it acquires typical meaning document attesting a legal transaction (chøng th­) and non-typical term in other professions. Take the following examples: English terms Basic nuclear meaning Typical meaning capital thñ ®« vèn interest sù quan t©m l·i suÊt to offer ®­a ra lêi ®Ò nghÞ chµo hµng break háng sù sôt gi¸ caution sù thËn träng sù b¶o l·nh commission uû ban tiÒn hoa hång consideration sù c©n nh¾c vËt båi hoµn regular ®Òu ®Æn kh¸ch hµng th­êng xuyªn return tr¶ l¹i, quay trë l¹i lîi nhuËn tõ ®Çu t­ 3.1.2. Translation by calque or loan translation This strategy is becoming more and more popular along with the development of international cooperation and is employed in the translation of terms which are not lexicalized in the TL. The creation of a target culture term to name a new concept from the SL is not always possible and very challenging. Therefore, in order to transfer their meaning, the best ways is to borrow. Some are borrowed directly without any change in the form, others are transferred or loan transcription with or without an explanation. • Economic acronyms Acronyms are very popular in the economic textbook and are used widely in the TL. The acronyms in the textbook are created and used frequently to designate international institutions, specific methods of payment, tax and so on. These acronyms are often in their short forms in the textbook and when translated into Vietnamese, their abbreviations are kept the same. For example, IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency that lends foreign exchange to other member nations. If translated this acronym, it should be followed by a long explanation. Therefore, the English abbreviation is used in Vietnamese though there is Vietnamese standard term for it. Following are the examples of such acronyms: English Vietnamese WTO (World Trade Organization) WTO (tæ chøc th­¬ng m¹i thÕ giíi) B/L ( bill of lading) B/L (vËn ®¬n) LC; L/C ; lc; l/c (letter of credit) LC; L/C ; lc; l/c (th­ tÝn dông) COD (cash on delivery) COD (tr¶ tiÒn khi giao hµng) CD (certificate of deposit ) CD (giÊy chøng göi tiÒn) VAT (value added tax) VAT (thuÕ gÝa trÞ gia t¨ng) 3.1.3 Translation by loan transcription As mentioned above, this strategy is widely applied nowadays with the loan terms written and read in Vietnamese way which is much easier for Vietnamese people to read and memorize. For instance, marketing: ma-kÐt-tinh, container: c«ng te n¬, checque: sÐc; supermarket: siªu thÞ. In some cases when Vietnamese terms are short, precise and familiar, they are opted in even though the English acronyms are not accompanied with their full forms. The following are the terms which are usually in abbreviations in English but in full forms in Vietnamese. English Vietnamese CIP c­íc vµ b¶o hiÓm tr¶ tíi n¬i ®Ých Circular L/C th­ tÝn dông l­u ®éng Traveller’s L/C th­ tÝn dông du lÞch Gr.wt tæng träng l­îng Nt.wt träng l­îng rßng In order to have proper translation of these terms, it is essential for the translators to be aware of the full forms of the English abbreviations that can help to decode the English acronyms and get the Vietnamese equivalents. For instance, the translators should realize that CIP is the abbreviation of carriage and insurance paid to, gr.wt = gross weight, nt.wt = net weight, pty = property company before the Vietnamese equivalents are given. • Economic eponyms Among the economic terms there are several terms denoting objects, methods, process that derived from their inventors, discoverers. In the translation of these terms, the proper names are transferred meanwhile their classifier is translated to create a clearer and more understandable translated version. For example: English Vietnamese Harrod-Domar growth model M« h×nh t¨ng tr­ëng kinh tÕ Harod-Domar Juglar cycle chu kú Juglar Keynesian Economics häc thuyÕt kinh tÕ Keynes Solow economic growth M« h×nh t¨ng tr­ëng kinh tÕ cña Solow Lozenz curve ®­êng Lorenz 3.1.4. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated word This strategy is employed in the translation of economic terms that are not lexicalized at all in Vietnamese. Normally these economic terms have more specific meanings than the TL terms, therefore, the translator has to add one or two TL words to the corresponding TL terms in order to produce a closer approximation of meaning. For example, slump denotes a sudden severe or prolonged fall in prices and trade, usually bringing widespread unemployment. If translated it is very difficult to find a one-word term with the greatest possible accuracy in Vietnamese as it is not lexicalized in. This semantically complex word expresses the combinations of action and qualities that appear to show up a lexical gap in the TL and is translated into Vietnamese as sù sôt gi¸ bÊt th×nh l×nh. Other examples may be translated as follows: English Vietnamese replevin tr¶ l¹i tµi s¶n bÞ tÞch biªn nhÇm insolvent ng­êi kh«ng cã kh¶ n¨ng tr¶ nî acquittance tr¶ xong nî venture viÖc kinh doanh m¹o hiÓm non- durables hµng tiªu dïng kh«ng l©u bÒn leverage kh¶ n¨ng chi tr¶ convertible ®ång tiÒn chuyÓn ®æi liquidity cã kh¶ n¨ng chuyÓn thµnh tiÒn mÆt prospectus giÊy qu¶ng c¸o hµng boom thêi kú h­ng thÞnh 3.1.5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word In economic field, derived words hold a considerable portion to designate economic terms and they are widespread with naturalized suffixes. A great number of economic terms are noun with various suffixes and prefixes creating different meanings in the TL. They often convey propositional and other types of meaning in English which have no direct equivalents in the TL. Thus, the translator should pay considerable attention to the meanings of the suffix, prefix as well as of the whole word for the new one keeps only some of its first meaning and the appropriate lexical of the TL. For examples, to indicate people there are several suffixes such as –or , –er, -ee; or prefixes –non, -un to show the opposite as in the following examples: English Vietnamese consumer ng­êi tiªu dïng offeror ng­êi chµo gi¸ creditor chñ nî transferor ng­êi chuyÓn nh­îng transferee ng­êi ®­îc chuyÓn nh­îng unrecoverable kh«ng thÓ lÊy l¹i ®­îc non- acceptance tõ chèi chÊp nhËn 3.1.6. Summary In summary, though the number of one-word terms in the economic field is not as many as above word terms, they often cause troubles to the translator in the process of translation. Therefore, translators need to clarify these troubles so as to find out the best way to deal with each one based on the theory of translation of technical terms or translation of non- equivalence. The translator should take into account the appropriate procedures and strategies to gain the purpose of terminology translation. 3.2. The translation of above-word level terms from English into Vietnamese Most of the investigated above-word level terms in the textbook are compounds appear in the form of nominal group as proposed by Mark Halliday (1985). These compound terms were classified further into different groups according to the relationship between the Thing and other elements of the compound terms and the appropriate translation strategies for these compound terms are transpositions procedure, translation by omission, translation by paraphrase of which the first procedure is the most popular and applied widely in the translation of the compound terms. In this section, we are going to examine these translation procedures of these compound terms in the light of the translation theory. This can help us realize the similarities and differences between the compound terms in the form of nominal group proposed by Halliday (1994) in terms of the position of the elements, the semantic and grammatical aspects between English and Vietnamese. 3.2.1. Translation by shifts or transpositions This strategy is employed effectively in the translation of most of the investigated compound terms from English into Vietnamese. There are two types of transpositions including transposition with the automatic change in word order from SL to TL which is mainly employed in the translation of the compound terms in the form of simple and unmarked nominal group. For example, personal property is translated as tµi s¶n riªng. The second type of transposition is rank-shift which is applied in the translation of the compound terms that normally do not have the Vietnamese equivalent to the lexical units of the English compound terms. In this case these compound terms are equivalent to a clause in Vietnamese. For example, the Vietnamese equivalent of voidable contract is hîp ®ång cã thÓ bÞ coi lµ v« gi¸ trÞ. These kinds of transpositions are further examined with the illustration of the economic terms as follows. 3.2.1.1. Translation by transposition with the automatic change in word order from SL to TL This transposition procedure needs the change in the position of the adjective or modifying element due to the different sequence of experiential structure of nominal group between English and Vietnamese. As indicated by Hoang Van Van (1998), one of the major differences between English and Vietnamese of experiential structure of nominal group is that in English the Classifier and Epithet elements precede the Thing meanwhile in Vietnamese they follow the Thing. Therefore, the basic rule for the translation of the compound terms is: English Vietnamese Classifier/ Epithet + Thing Thing + Classifier/Epithet Following are compound terms divided into subgroups translated by this procedure. a. Classifier/ Epithet (adjective) + Thing When translating compound terms of this type from English into Vietnamese there normally seems to be no difficulty in choosing the lexical equivalents as the meaning of the Thing and Classifier or Epithet are clear. The only thing for the translators to do is to rearrange the lexical items and sequence of English compounds in Vietnamese. Take the compound term general provision, as an example. Based on the experiential structure of the nominal group proposed by Halliday (1994), provision is the Thing which stands in the second position, whereas general - the Epithet specifying the Thing by indicating the quality of the Thing stands in the first position. In Vietnamese, the Thing provision is equivalent with ®iÒu kho¶n and general - the Epithet is equivalent with chung. As a result of the translation process from English into Vietnamese, the content of the compound term general provision is realized as ®iÒu kho¶n chung. Some examples of this type can be translated as follows: English Vietnamese International law luËt ph¸p quèc tÕ common adventure rñi ro chung personal property tµi s¶n c¸ nh©n financial instrument c«ng cô tµi chÝnh insurable interest l·i suÊt b¶o hiÓm initial data sè liÖu ban ®Çu large scale qui m« lín b. Classifier (noun) + Thing When encountering the translation of this type of compounds the same process happens, that is the translators have to arrange the equivalent constituents of the compound in the form of nominal group in English in the correspondent syntactic word order style of the nominal group in Vietnamese; that is the second element which is the Thing of the compound term in English becomes the first – the Thing in Vietnamese, the first item- the Classifier which indicates a particular subclass of the Thing, meanwhile, becomes the second constituent in Vietnamese compound term. Although the meaning of the compounds is made explicit by the existence of a relational word for to indicate purpose in English, the compound term can be translated into Vietnamese appropriately without any relational word. For example, consumer goods may be translated as hµng tiªu dïng. In Vietnamese, there are relational words such as dµnh cho, ®Ó, however, they are scarcely used since the semantic relation of the items in Vietnamese compound terms of this type show the meaning of purpose very clearly. Following are other examples of this type: English Vietnamese business transaction giao dÞch th­¬ng m¹i contract law luËt hîp ®ång contract term ®iÒu kho¶n hîp ®ång business cycle chu kú kinh doanh export subsidy b¶o trî xuÊt khÈu market price gi¸ c¶ thÞ tr­êng opportunity cost chi phÝ c¬ héi inflation rate tØ lÖ l¹m ph¸t It is a rule of translation that there must be a correspondence of the word class of the first item which indicate a particular subclass of the Thing when being translated from English into Vietnamese is the second item- the Classifier. If the Classifier in English is a noun, the second item in Vietnamese – Classifier is also a noun and if it is a verb (normally in –ing participle or – ed participle), it must be a verb in Vietnamese with no change in form of the verb as in the following example: English Vietnamese revolving fund quü lu©n chuyÓn warehousing entry tê khai nhËp kho stockholding cost chi phÝ l­u kho forced payment kho¶n nép b¾t buéc assented bond tr¸i kho¸n ®ång ý balanced budget dù to¸n c©n ®èi preferred stock cæ phiÕu ­u ®·i It is noticeable that this translation procedure is not very complicated, as the translators only need to identify the divisions between the elements in the group and rearrange these elements in the corresponding logical order in Vietnamese. Therefore, the translators can employ this translation procedure to translate the terms of longer nominal group such as English Vietnamese Average fixed cost phÝ cè ®Þnh trung b×nh limited liability company c«ng ty tr¸ch nhiÖm h÷u h¹n sales day book sæ nhËt biªn b¸n hµng This procedure is fairly easy as the translators only need to identify the divisions between the elements in the group and rearrange the positions of lexical items in Vietnamese. This strategy is applied to nominal groups of different types. The change of the lexical items in the group is automatic due to the natural difference between the nominal group in English and that in Vietnamese. 3.2.1.2. Translation by a rank-shift This procedure involves the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure. To convey the transferred meaning properly, in some cases, it is essential to change the grammatical structure of certain items in the SL text, for instance, a phrase or a word in SL will correspond to a clause in TL and vice versa. In the investigated economic terms, there are many terms created in the form of nominal groups which do not have the direct equivalents in Vietnamese but correspond to Vietnamese clauses or in some cases they are equivalence with Vietnamese verbal group. Therefore, it is necessary to employ the translation procedure rank-shift for the translation of these terms. These nominal groups are in the various forms which are examined in subgroups as follows: c. Classifier/ Epithet (V-ed) + Thing When encountering the translation of this type of compounds, the first attention of the translators is paid to the form of the Classifier/ Epithet which is formed by a derived word from a verb in –ed participle when it is followed by a Thing. In fact, the derived words from verb in –ed participle of the compounds which play the role of an adjective to characterize the Thing as unsecured in unsecured debt is equivalent with an embedded clause in Vietnamese. This clause explains how the action of the Thing is carried out. The translators are then to find the lexical equivalent for the lexical items of the compound. The next step for the translator to do is to put these lexical equivalents in the logical order in Vietnamese. The Classifier/ Epithet ending in –ed participle which indicates the subclass of the Thing in English now becomes the second lexical unit – the verbal group in Vietnamese; meanwhile the second constituent – the Thing is put in the first position in the embedded clause in Vietnamese and it is translated as nî kh«ng cã b¶o ®¶m. Some more compound terms of this type are translated as follows: English Vietnamese unsecured stock chøng kho¸n kh«ng ®­îc b¶o ®¶m collated advice giÊy b¸o ®· ®­îc ®èi chiÕu immobilized capital vèn bÞ khª ®äng implied warranty sù b¶o hµnh hiÓu ngÇm inflated currency tiÒn tÖ cã møc hèi ®o¸i cao certified invoice ho¸ ®¬n ®­îc x¸c nhËn listed company c«ng ty trong danh s¸ch d. Classifier/ Epithet (adjective) + Thing When translating these compound terms there normally seem to be no difficulty in choosing the lexical equivalents as the meaning of the constituents are clear. The only thing for the translators to do is to rearrange these lexical equivalents in the logical order in Vietnamese. Take a compound term void title as an example. Based on the experiential structure of the nominal group, title is the Thing which stands as the first element of the compound and void, meanwhile, is the Epithet which stands as the second and has the function of indicating some quality of the Thing. In Vietnamese, title is equivalent to a compound noun v¨n tù së h÷u – the Head , and void is equivalent to a clause kh«ng cã hiÖu lùc ph¸p lý - the Epithet. As a result, the compound term void titles is translated as v¨n tù së h÷u kh«ng cã hiÖu lùc ph¸p lý. Other examples may be translated as follows: English Vietnamese voidable contract hîp ®ång cã thÓ bÞ coi lµ v« gi¸ trÞ marketable title chøng th­ cã thÓ mua b¸n ®­îc void contract hîp ®ång v« gi¸ trÞ unequal exchange trao ®æi kh«ng ngang gi¸ competitive goods nh÷ng mÆt hµng cã søc c¹nh tranh domestic investment ®Çu t­ trong n­íc e. Thing + qualifier (N + Prp + N) When translating compound terms of this type from English into Vietnamese the translator’s biggest task is to identify the grammatical unit of the Qualifier in compound term in the form of nominal group since the prepositional phrase with the function of the Qualifier in the English compound term is rank-shifted. That is the Qualifier of the investigated compound terms is no longer a constituent of a nominal group but embedded or rank shifted. There is no direct equivalent for the Qualifier of this kind in Vietnamese but it corresponds with a clause or verbal group in Vietnamese. Take the compound term stoppage in transit as an example. Based on the experiential structure of the nominal group, stoppage is the Thing which stands as the first element of the compound; in transit, meanwhile, is the Qualifier which stands as the second and has the function of characterizing the Thing. In Vietnamese, stoppage is equivalent with ®×nh chØ – the Head, and in transit is equivalent with chuyÓn tiÕp hµng- the Qualifier. As a result, the compound term stoppage in transit is translated as ®×nh chØ chuyÓn tiÕp hµng. From the above-mentioned example, it is clear that in the translation of this type into Vietnamese, there is no need to rearrange the word order in the compound term in Vietnamese as it has the same order (Thing + Qualifier). However, it is necessary for the translator to find out the equivalent for the Qualifier in the TL to have the best version of translation. Followings are some more examples of this type of compound terms English Vietnamese sale on approval b¸n hµng ®­îc tr¶ l¹i sale of goods luËt b¸n hµng payment in arrear tr¶ tiÒn chËm goods in demand hµng ho¸ cã nhu cÇu damages at large tiÒn båi th­êng kh«ng ®Þnh tr­íc demand for payment giÊy yªu cÇu tr¶ tiÒn goods in progress hµng ®ang s¶n xuÊt goods in transit hµng ®ang trªn ®­êng ®i It is the fact that the most important factor in the translation of these compounds is the change in form of the compound terms from English into Vietnamese so as to get the semantic equivalence and the natural style of the TL. Consequently, the equivalence in meaning must have priority over the stylistic forms. 3.2.2. Translation by omission This translation strategy is applied in translating terms having the form of nominal group which usually takes ‘of prepositional phrase’ as the Qualifier (Noun + of + Noun). When translating compound terms of this type from English into Vietnamese considerable attention should be paid to the structure of the compound term to clarify the Thing and the Qualifier so as to find out the appropriate Vietnamese lexical equivalents for the lexical units of the compound as while the second – the Qualifier has the function of characterizing the Thing. To convert these terms into Vietnamese, literal translation is grammatically possible but not accords with the natural usage in Vietnamese. Therefore, the translators must take into notice the naturalness of the translated terms in Vietnamese. Take a compound term as an example, expansion of trade. Based on the semantic relation of the nominal group between the two elements, expansion is the Thing which stands as the first, while of trade is the Qualifier which stands as the second characterizing the Thing. In Vietnamese, the Thing expansion is equivalent with sù ph¸t triÓn- the head and of trade is equivalent with cña th­¬ng m¹i- the Qualifier. However, it does not sound natural enough in Vietnamese when it is translated as sù ph¸t triÓn cña th­¬ng m¹i. As a result of the translation process from English into Vietnamese, the content of the compound term expansion of trade is realized by the reduced form in Vietnamese as sù ph¸t triÓn th­¬ng m¹i. What is noticeable during the translation process of the compound term of this type is the omission of the functional word – the preposition of in the SL to make the term sound more natural and readable in Vietnamese. Other examples may be translated as follows: English Vietnamese amount of goods l­îng hµng hãa inspection of goods kiÓm tra hµng ho¸ document of title chøng tõ quyÒn së h÷u contract of insurance hîp ®ång b¶o hiÓm mobilization of capital huy ®éng vèn quality of product chÊt l­îng s¶n phÈm liberalization of trade tù do ho¸ mËu dÞch What is put in focus here is the omission in the form of the compound terms in the TL in order to get the semantic equivalence and the smooth, readable and natural style of the compound terms in Vietnamese. 3.2.3. Translation by paraphrase This translation procedure is applied in the translation of the compound term in the form of nominal group which is semantically complex. In fact it is one kind of dramatic rank shift used in the translation of SL term which has not been technically lexicalized in the TL. When encountering the translation of this type of compound terms, the analysis of experiential structure of the nominal group and the semantic relationship between the elements are of some uses. Therefore, the translators need to specify the class of Thing first in order to unpack the meaning of the semantically complicated functional components of the compound terms. The next step is to paraphrase the semantically complex constituents of the SL term even using many unrelated words to specify its propositional meaning in the TL. For example, when translating a term Identified goods, it is necessary to pay attention to the form of the Epithet which is also realized by a derived word from a verb in –ed participle which is equivalent with an embedded clause in Vietnamese. Besides, it is necessary for the translator to add a prepositional phrase to the TL to make the term understandable to the TL reader. As a result the Epithet Identified is equivalent with ®­îc ghi râ trong hîp ®ång. The first constituent which modifies the Thing in English now becomes the second constituent in Vietnamese; while the second Thing becomes the first constituent modified by the second constituent realized by an embedded clause in Vietnamese with the addition of prepositional phrase. The term is translated as hµng ho¸ ®­îc ghi râ trong hîp ®ång. Some more examples of the translation of this type can be showed as follows: English Vietnamese balance of an invoice sè tiÒn cßn l¹i ph¶i thanh to¸n nh­ mét ho¸ ®¬n destination contract hîp ®ång yªu cÇu giao hµng t¹i c¶ng ®Õn writ of replevin lÖnh thi hµnh viÖc tr¶ l¹i tµi s¶n bÞ tÞch biªn nhÇm lease of goods hîp ®ång cho thuª bÊt ®éng s¶n call money tiÒn göi kh«ng kú h¹n general tariff biÓu thuÕ chung cho hµng nhËp khÈu 3.2.4. Summary From the examination of the translation of the terms mentioned above we can realize some remarkable issues relating to the translation of the terms. Firstly is the great usefulness of the methods of the translation of technical terms and Neologisms in the translation of the economic terms in order to achieve the objectives of the translation of terminology, that is the accurateness, systematism and internationalism. Secondly is the noticeable change in the logical order of the elements of the compound terms from English into Vietnamese or vice versa. Besides, the addition and omission of words or the change in the form of the elements also make the translation sound comprehensible and natural to the TL readership. And the last is the translation strategies which have been applied in the translation of these economic terms. Due to the specific characteristics of economic terms and the aim of the translation of terminology, most of the terms are translated by transposition strategies which seem to be the most appropriate procedure for dealing with the compound terms. 3.3. Appropriate strategies and procedures employed in translating economic terminology from English into Vietnamese Based on the thorough examination of the translation of English economic terms into Vietnamese, we can recognize a series of problems arisen during the process of the translation and the strategies used by the professional translators in this field. The most common problems for the translators are the subtechnical terms, derived words, and differences in form, in the collocational patterns and the SL concept is not lexicalized in the TL. In dealing with these problems, recognized translation, calque or loan translation, loan transcription, transpositions, translation by omission and paraphrase are used. Through the examination of the translation of the terms, we would like to summarize the above mentioned translation strategies and procedures with the aim of suggesting the appropriate ways for the translation of economic terms in the economic textbook from English into Vietnamese. 3.3.1. Recognized translation Recognized translation procedure is employed when the terms are sub technical terms or old words with new sense (see examples in 3.1.1.) 3.3.2. Calque or and loan translation Calque or loan translation procedures are employed when the SL concept is not lexicalized in the TL especially the economic acronyms and eponyms (see examples in 3.1.2.) 3.3.3. Translation by loan transcription Translation by loan transcription is used mostly to the translation of economic acronyms and eponyms. (see examples in 3.1.3.) 3.3.4. Paraphrase using unrelated word Paraphrase using unrelated word strategy is employed when the economic terms in English have not been lexicalized in the TL (see examples in 3.1.4.) 3.3.5. Paraphrase using a related word Paraphrase using a related word strategy is employed when the economic terms in English is lexicalized in the TL but in a different form (see examples in 3.1.5.) 3.3.6. Shifts or transpositions Transpositions procedure is used due to the differences in the language structures of the two languages (see examples in 3.2.1.1., 3.2.1.2.) 3.3.7. Translation by omission Reduction procedure is necessary when translating the compound terms in the form of nominal group (Thing + Qualifier) of which the Qualifier is the prepositional phrase to make the translation sound natural in the TL (see examples in 3.2.2.) 3.3.8. Translation by paraphrase Paraphrase procedure is employed in the translation of semantically complex terms which are not lexicalized in the TL (see examples in 3.2.3.) 3.4. Conclusion In this chapter, we have briefly examined the translation of one-word terms and above-word level terms in the light of the translation theory. We mainly focus on classifying the problems and finding out the commonly used procedures for the translation of these terms. part III: Conclusion Issues addressed in the study The aim of this research is to investigate the English – Vietnamese translation of economic terminology in the textbook Business Law. The study has been carried out on the basis of theoretical background and the translation of authentic material by professional translator. So the theory of translation including translation strategies and procedures, translation of neologisms, technical translation and main characteristics of economic terminology are presented in chapter 1. Chapter 2 is concerned with the classification of economic terminology according to their grammatical compositions in the textbook. The first section is intended for the introduction of the textbook with its content as well as layout. The second section is devoted for the classification of economic terminology in the textbook. As a result, we have two main types of terms in the textbook including one-word terms and compound terms. Most of the investigated terms belong to compounds in the form of nominal group. Therefore, these compound terms have been sorted out into subgroups with the Thing and modifying elements such as the Epithet indicating some quality of the Thing, Classifier indicating a particular subclass of the Thing or Qualifier characterizing the Thing. It is essential to classify the compound terms in order to find out the grammatical structure of these compounds in the form of nominal group as they affect the choice of the logical order and lexical equivalent in the process of translation. Chapter 3 is for the study of English – Vietnamese translation of economic terminology investigated in the textbook Business Law. Through the translation theory, translation of Neologisms and translation of non-equivalence, we have found out the problems occurred during the translation of these groups of terms. Accordingly, we have identified appropriate translation strategies employed by professional translator to deal with such problems to satisfy the criteria of terminology as mentioned in 1.2. As the terms of each group share the same grammatical features that inevitably lead to the similar ways of the translation we have found out the appropriate strategies used for each group of the terms and their shortcomings, which are seen as valuable to those who deal with the translation in this field. In a word, this study on the translation of economic terms in the textbook “Business Law” is carried out on the basis of grammatical structure and semantic relationship of the elements of the terms investigated in the textbook. The study is aimed at indicating the essential work which should be done in the process of translation of economic terms in order to have a translation which sounds original in a natural form in the TL. The implication of the study 2.1. For the translation of economic terminology from English into Vietnamese It is clear that the main job of the translators of terminology is to transfer the meaning of the SL terms to the TL in a natural way. To do this, the translators must have a good knowledge about the field they are doing the translation, especially the understanding of the terms to be translated so as to find out the appropriate equivalents for the translation which is expressed in a natural way. This study on the English – Vietnamese translation of economic terminology is conducted with the view to being of some uses for the translation of economic term from English into Vietnamese. ¨ As for the translation of the terms at word level, it is necessary for the translators to aware of the field register in order to find out the closest lexical equivalent in the TL for the SL term when translating the Neologisms. In addition, it is advisable to add one or more words that are equivalent in meaning in the TL for the translation of the derived words. If the terms have not been lexicalized in the TL, borrowing might be the best strategy. As for the translation of compound terms, it is essential to classify the word class of the compound so as to select the appropriate correspondent word class substitution in the TL which can keep the same propositional meaning of the SL. Besides, the change in the word order of the terms is compulsory due to the differences in grammatical structures of the two languages. Moreover, the omission of word especially of functional words such as preposition, the substitution of a word by a clause are necessary in some cases to make the translation sound natural and comprehensible to the TL readers. In short, the study has showed that the translators can do his work in translating economic terms much better by employing appropriate strategies once they have comprehensive and systematic knowledge about the SL and TL grammatical and semantic features of economic terms. Therefore, this research has been carried out with the hope that it can be useful to the translators or to anyone who is interested in this field. For ESP teaching and learning ESP is widely teaching and learning in our University, Haiphong Public University. Therefore, various ESP textbooks are available to my students not only for the major English but even for the non-major English. One of these books is the text book “Business Law” which is used as a valuable reference material. During the process of teaching and learning ESP, we realize that terminology though making up a small percentage of words in the texts, causes much difficulty to learners. Therefore, a perfect translation of the terms based on thorough understanding of their grammatical and semantic features makes it easier for learners. For ESP learners, understanding the new vocabulary is of great importance since this helps them understand the whole text thoroughly. There are many ways to present new vocabulary namely giving concise definition, detailed description, examples, synonyms, antonyms and translation. However, in economic texts a detailed description including translation is the best and fastest ways to get the meaning of the new vocabulary. The fact is that many of the economic terminology in the textbook are compounds, nevertheless, it is essential to provide an analysis of the grammatical features and semantic relationship of the constituents since these features might affect the meaning of the compound. This research has been carried out with the hope to be of some use for ESP teaching/learning to students at HPU at intermediate level. 3. Suggestions for further studies This study is conducted to investigate the English – Vietnamese translation of economic terminology based on the analysis of grammatical and semantic features of the terms in this field. The study has also attempted to indicate the most popular ways of the translation of the terms investigated and the appropriate strategies employed in the translation of these terms. Yet, within the scope of the minor thesis, several issues relating to the study have not been addressed. Therefore, the followings are our suggestions for further study which will be of great interest and use for anyone concerning the study of translation of economic terminology in general and economic terminology in the textbook Business Law in particular. · A study on the English -Vietnamese translation of economic terminology in the other parts of the textbook · A study on the grammatical equivalence of the economic textbook · A study on the textual equivalence of the economic textbook Bibliography Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A Course book on Translation. London and New York; Routledge. Bell, R.T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and practice. New York: Long man Inc. Bright, W. (1992). 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