Contents
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Acknowledgments xv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Components of an Internet Telephony Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2 Transport 5
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Internet Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Previous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Measurement Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Results for Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.4 Results for Senders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Review of Existing Recovery Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Media Aware vs. Media Unaware Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.1 Resynchronization Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Magnitude of Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.2.1 Objective Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.2.2 Subjective Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.3 Contribution of Resynchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.3.1 Objective Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.3.2 Subjective Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Integrating FEC with Playout Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.1 The Coupling Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5.1.1 Redundant Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.1.2 Reed-Solomon FEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.1.3 Conditions for Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.1.4 A Note on Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.2 Existing Playout Buffer Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.3 New Playout Buffer Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.3.1 Virtual Delay Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.3.1.1 Formulation for Redundant Codecs . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.3.1.2 Formulation for Reed Solomon FEC . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.3.1.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.3.1.4 Proof of Correctness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.3.1.5 Supporting Target Loss Probabilities . . . . . . . . . 48
2.5.3.2 “Previous Optimal” Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5.3.3 Model-Based “Analytical” Playout Adaptation Algorithm . . . 52
2.5.4 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.4.1 Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.4.2 Coupled vs. Uncoupled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.4.3 Comparisons of New Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.4.3.1 Using FEC with Minimal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.4.3.2 Achieving a Specific Loss Target . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.4.3.3 Achieving a Varying Loss Target . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Transport of Media-Unaware FEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6.1 Transport Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.6.2 Previous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.6.3 Our Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.6.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.6.3.2 Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.6.3.2.1 FEC Packet Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.6.3.2.1.1 RTP Header of FEC Packets . . . . . . . . . 71
2.6.3.2.1.2 FEC Header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6.3.2.2 Protection Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.6.3.2.3 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.6.4 Determination of the Set of Packets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.6.4.1 Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.6.4.2 Computing T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.7 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 3 QoS Feedback 81
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 Overview of RTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.1 RTCP: Control and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.2 Scaling RTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Problems with RTCP Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.1 Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.2 State Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.3 Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Requirements of a Solution for IP telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5 Taxonomizing the Solution Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.1 Feedback Destination: Where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.2 Feedback Mechanism: How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5.3 Feedback Source: Who . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5.4 Feedback Content: What . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.5 Congestion Control: When . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.6 Solution Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.6.1 Existing Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.1.1 Summarizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.1.2 Polling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6.1.3 Separate Multicast Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6.1.4 Event-Based Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6.2 Additional Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.7 Reconsideration Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.7.1 Ideal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.7.2 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.7.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.7.3.1 No Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.7.3.1.1 Computing the Send Probability . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.7.3.1.2 Computing the Scheduled Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.7.3.1.3 Obtaining the ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.7.3.1.4 Computing the Level of Congestion . . . . . . . . . 117
3.7.3.1.5 Reconsideration as a Control Mechanism . . . . . . . 119
3.7.3.1.6 Computing the Convergence Time . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.7.3.2 Modeling Delay and Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.7.3.2.1 Number of Packets Sent for Conditional Reconsider-
ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.7.3.2.2 Number of Packets Sent for Unconditional Reconsid-
eration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7.3.2.3 Duration of Plateau Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.7.3.3 Linear Joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.7.3.4 Steady State Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.7.3.5 Fairness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.7.3.6 Single User Joins Late . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.8 BYE Reconsideration Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.9 Reverse Reconsideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.9.1 Quantifying the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.9.1.1 Long Declines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.9.1.2 Rapid Declines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.9.2 Reverse Reconsideration Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.9.3 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.10 Group Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.10.1 Basic Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.10.1.1 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.10.2 Increasing the Sampling Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.10.3 Reducing the Sampling Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.10.3.1 Corrective Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.10.3.2 Binning Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.10.3.3 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.10.4 Sender Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter 4 Signaling Protocols 160
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.2 Requirements for a Signaling Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3 Existing Signaling Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.3.1 BICC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3.2 H.323 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.4 SIP Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.4.1 Protocol Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.4.2 SIP Network Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.4.3 SIP Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4.4 Addressing and Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.4.5 Initiating, Modifying, and Terminating Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.4.6 Registrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.4.7 Session Description Protocol Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.4.8 SIP as a Tool for New Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.4.8.1 MIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.4.8.2 URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.5 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.5.1 Events and Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.5.2 Processing Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.5.3 Server State Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.5.4 Client State Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.5.5 Mediator State Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.5.6 Server API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.5.7 Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.5.8 Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.6 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chapter 5 Gateway and Service Discovery 198
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.2 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.2.1 Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.2.2 General Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.3 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.4 Existing Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.4.1 Centralized Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4.1.1 Service Location Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.4.1.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.4.2 Replicated Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.4.3 Distributed Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.4.3.1 DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.4.3.2 LDAP and X.500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.4 Indexed Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.4.4.1 Telephony Routing over IP (TRIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.4.4.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.4.5 Multicast Push and Pull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.4.6 Summary of Existing Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.5 Wide Area Service Discovery Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.5.1 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.5.2 Basic Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.5.3 BA URL’s and Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.5.4 Message Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.5.5 SA Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.5.6 DA Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.5.6.1 Multicast Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.5.6.2 Contacting BA’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.5.6.3 Multicasting DAAdverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.5.7 AA Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.5.8 BA Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.5.8.1 Receiving Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.5.8.2 Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.5.8.3 Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.5.9 Sending Multicast Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.5.10 Scheduling Transmission of Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.5.10.1 Timing Out Senders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.5.10.2 Minimum Transmission Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.5.11 Multicast Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.5.12 Reducing the Storage Requirements of a BA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Chapter 6 Application Architecture 242
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.2 Requirements for an Internet Telephony Service Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.3 Existing Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.3.1 Centralized Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.3.1.1 Intelligent Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.3.1.2 MGCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.3.2 Distributed Software Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.3.3 Distributed Component Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.3.4 Mobile Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.3.4.1 General Purpose Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.3.4.2 Domain Specific Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.4 Application Component Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.4.1 Dialog Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4.2 Mixing Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.4.3 Text-To-Speech Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.4.4 Additional Session Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.4.5 Presence Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.4.6 Additional Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.4.7 Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.4.8 Third Party Call Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.4.8.1 Basic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.4.8.2 Advanced Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.4.8.3 Continued Processing of Third Party Calls . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.4.8.4 End User Initiates Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.4.9 Obtaining Data from End Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.4.9.1 Stimulus Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.4.9.2 Functional Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.5 Target Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6.5.1 Pre-Paid Calling Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.5.2 Click-to-dial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.5.3 Auto-conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.5.4 Web Form Entry for Call Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.5.5 Speech-to-text for the Hearing Impaired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6.6 Comparison to Existing Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.6.1 DFC and ECLIPSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.6.2 Distributed Software and Component Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.6.3 Mobile Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.6.4 Centralized Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.7 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Chapter 7 Conclusion and Future Work 305
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