Giáo dục học - Chapter 13: Leadership in schools

Chapter 13 Leadership in SchoolsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Leadership DefinedBennis (1989): like beauty, (or pornography), leadership is hard to define, but you know it when you see itChemers (1997:1): “a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task”Most definitions agree that leadership involves a social influence process; beyond that, scholars dispute the meaning of leadership.We define leadership broadly as a social process in which an individual or a group influences behavior toward a shared goal.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Life as a School AdministratorStructured observation studies reveal similar characteristics of administrative jobs across countries and organizational settings:School administrators work long hours at a physically exhausting paceSchool leaders rely on verbal media, and spend much time walking through the building and talking to individuals and groupsAdministration requires the ability to change gears and tasks frequentlySpan of concentration for school administrators is short—the job is fragmented and discontinuity is prevalentHow does this leave room for leadership? Look to theoretical approaches of leadership for answers.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Trait Approach to LeadershipTrait approach to leadership: Key leadership traits are inherited. Aristotle thought individuals were born with the qualities that would make them good leadersBass (1990) chronicles historical approaches to leadership qualities in the US. and underscores Stogdill’s major review of the leadership research.Stogdill’s meta-analysis casts dim view on pure trait research: impact of traits varies widely from situation to situation, so a person does not become a leader based on the possession of traits aloneW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011PersonalityThere are some traits and skills associated with effective leadership, which can be broken into three groups: Personality, Motivation, and SkillsPersonality: relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way--four are of particular note:Self-confident leaders: more likely to set high goals and persistStress-tolerant leaders: make good decisions, stay calm, provide decisive directions under stressEmotionally mature leaders: have accurate awareness of strengths and weaknesses, are oriented toward self-improvementLeaders with integrity: behaviors are consistent with stated values—these leaders are seen as honest, ethical, responsible, and trustworthyMotivational TraitsMotivation: set of energetic forces from both within and beyond an individual to initiate work-related behavior and determine its form, direction, intensity, and durationFour motivational traits are key for effective leaders:Task and interpersonal needs: effective leaders have drive for the task and concern for peoplePower needs: effective leaders seek positions of authority and are comfortable exercising influence over othersAchievement orientation: effective leaders have a desire to excel, a drive to succeed, willingness to assume responsibilityHigh expectations for success: effective leaders believe they can do the job and will receive valued outcomes for their effortsPhysical traits, such as energy and activity, allow individuals to show their competence through active engagementW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011SkillsYukl (2002) and Northouse (2004) note three important categories of skills for effective leadershipTechnical Skills: specialized knowledge about a specific type of work, activity, procedure, or techniqueInterpersonal Skills: understanding of feelings and attitudes of others, knowing how to work with people in individual and cooperative work relationshipsConceptual Skills: ability to conceptualize, think logically, reason analytically, deductively and inductivelyEffective leaders need all three sets of skills.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Situational Approach to LeadershipResponse to trait approach: Researchers tried to identify setting characteristics that influenced leader successPossible situational determinants of leadership:Structural properties of organization—size, hierarchy, formalization, technologyRole characteristics—type and difficulty of task, rules, content, performance expectations, powerSubordinate characteristics—education, age, knowledge, experience, tolerance for ambiguity, responsibility, powerInternal environment—climate, culture, openness, participation levels, group atmosphere, values, normsExternal environment—complexity, stability, uncertainty, resource dependency, institutionalizationIt is clear that both the situation and traits are important in effective leadership; it is not one or the other. Both are needed.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Leader BehaviorEarly conceptualizations of leadership relied on two categories of leader behavior:Emphasis on people, interpersonal relations, groupsEmphasis on production, task completion, and goalsOhio State leadership studiesLBDQ (leader behavior description questionnaire) studies at OSU in 1940’s measure two dimensions of leader behaviorInitiating structure: delineates relationship between leader and subordinates, establishes defined patterns of organization, procedures, channels of communication.Consideration: indicates friendship, trust, warmth, interest, and respect in the relationship between the leader and members of the work groupW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Major findings of OSU studiesFour major findings of LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966)Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensions of leader behaviorEffective leaders exhibit frequent behaviors on both dimensionsSuperiors and subordinates attribute success to behaviors in opposite dimensions: superiors tend to credit initiating structure behaviors; subordinates tend to credit consideration behaviorsWeak relationship between leaders’ expressed beliefs on how they should behave, and subordinates’ descriptions of how leaders do behave; Knowing how to behave and behaving that way are two different events.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Recent Perspectives on Leader BehaviorSame style of leader behavior is not optimal across all situations: The appropriate style depends on the situation.Yukl (2002) proposes three basic dimension to leadership:Task-oriented behaviors: clarifying roles, planning and organizing operations, monitoring organizational functionsRelations-oriented behaviors: supporting, developing, recognizing, consulting, and managing conflictChange-oriented behaviors: scanning and interpreting external events, articulating an attractive vision, proposing innovative programs, appealing for change, creating a coalition to support and implement changesLeaders typically engage in all three types of behaviorThe particular situation plays an important role in determining best mix.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Leadership EffectivenessBoth objective and subjective dimensions are used to assess leadership effectivenessAccomplishment of organizational goals ,e.g. student achievement (objective)Self-assessments(subjective)Reputation (subjective)Perceptual evaluations by significant reference groups (subjective)Overall job satisfaction of subordinates (subjective)W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Contingency Models of LeadershipContingency theory postulates that effectiveness of the leader is contingent upon the appropriate match of the leadership traits and skills with the situation.Some examples of Contingency Models:Instructional LeadershipFielder’s Contingency Model of LeadershipSubstitutes for LeadershipDistributed LeadershipW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Instructional Leadership: Alig & HoyThe effectiveness of the principal’s instructional leadership is contingent upon a climate of academic emphasis. Instructional Leadership Model postulates that effective instructional leaders perform three functions:Define and communicate goalsMonitor and provide constructive feedback on teachingPromote and emphasize professional development.However, such leadership will not lead to high student achievement (effectiveness) unless there is also a climate, which emphasizes academic success.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler (1967): First major theory to propose specific contingency relationshipsSituational control: power and influence leaders have to implement plans, decisions, and strategies is the situational variableDetermined by three factors:Position powerTask structureLeader-member relationsEffectiveness: extent to which group accomplishes primary goalLeadership Style: Task-oriented or Relations-oriented W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Fiedler’s Three Propositions1. In high-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effective than relationship-oriented leaders2. In moderate-control situations, relationship-oriented leaders are more effective than task-oriented leaders3. In low-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effective than relationship-oriented leadersModel tested rigorously, with mixed, but mainly supportive resultsCriticisms: LPC has been a moving target: first measured emotional reaction to difficult subordinates, then relationship orientation, then the leader’s motivational hierarchyW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Substitutes for Leadership ModelKerr and Jermier (1977) question basic assumption that formal leadership is necessary; their model is their alternativeSubstitutes: situational elements that replace or reduce a leader’s ability to influence attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors of followersNeutralizers: situational factors that prevent leader from acting in a particular way or that nullify effect of leader’s actionsThree categories of situational variables have these influences: Characteristics of subordinates: abilities, training, experience, and knowledge, professional orientation, and indifference toward rewardsTask characteristics: structured routine tasks, intrinsically satisfying tasks, and feedbackOrganizational characteristics: formalization of roles and procedures, flexibility of rules and policies, work group cohesiveness, spatial distance between administrator and followersLeadership behavior and effective performance is moderated by subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Distributed leadershipDistributed leadership models challenge the assumption that one person has to be in charge to make change happen; in this model leadership is an organizational quality.Distributed leadership embraces leadership by teams and groups.Spillane et al (2001, 2003):Define leadership around the technical core-- “the identification, acquisition, allocation, coordination, and use of social, material, cultural resources necessary to establish the conditions forteaching and learning”The distribution and quality of leadership vary across a variety of situational factors; hence effective distributed leadership depends upon matching leadership teams with the appropriate situation. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Transformational LeadershipPioneers: Burns (1978), Bass (1985): Three main types of leadershipLaissez-Faire leadership: absence of transactions with followers. These leaders avoid expressing views or taking action, avoid or delay decisions, ignore responsibility, provide little feedback. Most passive, least effective of three types.Transactional leadership: motivate followers by exchanging rewards for services. Leaders identify what followers want and try to provide it as reward for effort. Respond to followers’ immediate self-interest. Exchanges are economic: pursued on basis of cost-benefit.Contingent reward leadership: leader behaviors focus on role and task requirements; provide rewards contingent on performance.Active management-by-exception: leaders maintain high levels of vigilance to ensure standards are met; take corrective action quickly.Passive management-by-exception: leaders fail to intervene until problems are serious.Transformational leadership: leadership is expanded to go beyond simple exchanges and agreement.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Transformational LeadershipTransformational leadership posits four main dimensions (the 4 I’s):Idealized InfluenceInspirational motivationIntellectual motivationIndividualized considerationW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Idealized InfluenceIdealized influence: builds trust, respect in followers, thus forming basis for acceptance of big changes.Leaders display conviction and high standards of conduct, share risks, consider needs of others first, and never use power for personal gain. Followers admire and trust leader and thus buy into mission, even if it requires radical changes in the organization.Attributed idealized influence: followers perceive leader as being charismatic, confident, powerful, and focused on higher-order ideals.Idealized influence as behavior: charismatic actions of leaders that focus on values, beliefs, and sense of missionW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Inspirational MotivationInspirational motivation: changes expectations of group members: problems CAN be solvedDevelops appealing vision to guide development of organizational goals and operating proceduresLeader behaviors provide meaning, challenge for followersProject attractive and optimistic futureEmphasize ambitious goalsCreate idealized visions for organizationsClearly communicate that vision is obtainableResults: team spirit, enthusiasm, optimism, goal commitment, shared vision within the work groupW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Intellectual StimulationIntellectual stimulation: encourage followers’ creativity—question old assumptions, traditions and beliefs, reframe problemsEncourage followers to design new procedures and programs and solve problemsEncourage unlearning—eliminate fixation on “way we’ve always done it”Insist on constant open examination of procedures, receptivity to changeNothing is sacred: any procedure, policy, or operation can be contested on the meritsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Individualized ConsiderationIndividualized consideration: leaders pay particular attention to each individual’s needs for growth and achievementLeaders act as mentors—help followers and colleagues develop potential and take responsibility for own developmentCreate new learning opportunities in supportive climateRecognize and accept individual differences in needs and valuesUse two-way communication, and interact personally with othersW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Research findingsResearch on transformational leadership clarifies three generalizations:Idealized influence and inspirational leadership most satisfying and effective (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990)Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived to lead more effective organizations, and have subordinates that exert greater effort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacher perceptions of student goal achievement and student grades (Leithwood, 1994)Influences three psychological characteristics of staff: perception of school characteristics, commitment to change, and organizational learningDepends upon attending to all four “I’s”, with individualized consideration as a baseSupport for Leithwood’s claims from other studies: Silins (1992), Marks & Printy (2003)W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Servant LeadershipServant leadership is behavior that nurtures individual development in the organization through listening, empathy, stewardship, and an awareness to develop followers who think ethically and foster sound interpersonal relations with their colleagues. The servant leader attends to individual growth, to realizing the organization’s goals, and to the ethical and moral effects on the broader community Servant leadership inverts the power pyramid to show the relative placement of leaders: The leader supports the organization and the responsibility for action is dispersed across the organization. Servant leadership stands on “seven pillars:” personal character, people first, skilled communication, compassionate collaboration, foresight, systems thinking, and moral authority W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Evolutionary Leadership Theory (ELT)The basic premise ELT is that leadership and followership emerged during the course of human evolution. Leadership and followership are psychological adaptations that have been sculpted into our brain; they are instinctive and universal and have become the natural order of things. We are programmed to live in groups, to be led, and to be obedient most of the time. ELT also postulates the particular traits associated with initiative taking and intelligence are largely inherited and propel people to power positions.Leadership has three important functions: it binds groups; it helps the group learn new things; and it teaches others how to lead. We have evolved to follow authority and we have developed an innate “follow the majority rule;” in fact, the desire to conform overwhelms the desire to be correct.The instincts of reciprocity, fairness, and hierarchy are hard wired into our psyches.ELT emphasizes followers as a vital component of leadership. Increasingly leaders need to learn how to shift their pattern of leadership as they as they interact with followers up the ladder of commitment from subordinates to supporters to loyalists to apprentices to disciples. Leaders need to be a source of inspiration for disciples, a teacher for apprentices, a defender for loyalists, a figurehead for supporters, and a provider for subordinates. Practical ImperativesKnow your leadership style and be flexible: There is no one best style.Match your leadership style to the situation: Effectiveness depends on the appropriate matching.“Mission first, people always:” Task achievement and supportive social relations are essential for success.Strive to be broadly effective: Your reputation, subordinate satisfaction, and goal achievement are all important aspects of effectiveness.Be both an instructional and organizational leader: Effective instructional leadership depends on a school climate of academic emphasis.Delegate and distribute leadership widely: Expertise drives success.Be inspirational, intellectual, idealistic, and tailor you leadership to your subordinates: Transformative change requires it.Lead by serving: Servant leadership creates moral authority.Make informality a virtue: Formal structures often interfere with authentic action.Be just: Favoritism and nepotism erode fairness.Avoid the Dark Triad: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and a Psychopathy. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011