Giáo dục học - Chapter 2: The technical core: Learning and teaching

Chapter 2The Technical Core: Learning and TeachingMcGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Talcott Parsons: Three levels of structure in organizationsTechnicalManagerialInstitutionalTechnical Core: system of organizational activity where the “product” of the organization is produced. In schools, the teaching-learning process, as the technical core, shapes many administrative decisions.Levels of Organizational StructureW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Learning DefinedLearning: experience produces a stable change in someone’s knowledge or behavior.Change must occur because of experience, whether or not the learning is intentional or unintentionalNo one best explanation of learning, but three general theories:Behavioral theories: stress observable changes in behaviors, skills, and habitsCognitive theories: stress internal mental activities such as thinking, remembering, creating, and problem solvingConstructivist theories: stress how individuals make meaning of events and activities. Learning = construction of knowledgeW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Behavioral Perspective on LearningBehaviorists not concerned primarily with mental or internal processes, but rather with changes in behavior brought about by experience. B.F. Skinner and his followers emphasize antecedents and consequences as mechanisms for changing behavior.Environmental influences (antecedents and consequences) shape all behavior, in the “A-B-C” pattern:Antecedent-behavior-consequence: antecedent precedes behavior, which is followed by a consequenceConsequences of behavior become antecedents for next ABC sequenceChange behavior by changing antecedents, consequences, or bothW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011ConsequencesEarly behavioral work focused on consequences more than antecedents.Kind of consequence and timing of consequence will strengthen or weaken individual’s propensity for a certain behavior.Two kinds of consequences: Reinforcement and PunishmentReinforcement strengthens or increases frequency of behavior. Punishment weakens or suppresses behavior.Be careful not to confuse punishment with negative reinforcement: no matter how you reinforce, if you’re reinforcing you’re strengthening behavior.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011ReinforcementReinforcer: consequence that strengthens behavior that it follows.One individual’s reinforcer might not be a reinforcer for someone else: responses are highly individualizedSome psychologists say reinforcers satisfy needs; others argue they reduce tensions or stimulate particular parts of the brain.Strength of reinforcement depends upon individual’s perception of the event, and the meaning it holds.Two main types of reinforcement: positive and negativeW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Positive and Negative ReinforcementPositive reinforcement: occurs when a behavior produces a new stimulus or motivating forceWhen a consequence strengthens a behavior by adding a stimulus, the behavior has been positively reinforcedNegative reinforcement: occurs when a behavior removes or eliminates a stimulusIf behavior results in elimination of a negative stimulus, it’s more likely to be repeated: the behavior has been negatively reinforcedBoth types of reinforcement strengthen behavior: positive through adding stimuli; negative by subtracting stimuliW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011PunishmentIf reinforcement strengthens behavior, punishment suppresses it: behavior followed by punishment is less likely to be repeatedAs with reinforcers, punishments are somewhat individualized: what punishes one individual might not be perceived as punishment by anotherTwo main types of punishment: 1. Direct Punishment (Type I) Direct punishment: appearance of stimulus following behavior suppresses or weakens behavior.2. Removal Punishment (Type II) Removal punishment: stimulus is removed following behavior in order to weaken or suppress it.Both types suppress behavior--Direct punishment by adding something to stop it, and removal punishment by withholding somethingW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011AntecedentsAntecedents precede behaviorHelp individuals distinguish between behaviors that lead to positive consequences and behaviors that lead to negative consequences: individual learns to “read the antecedent.”Not always the case that people are conscious of reading the antecedent, but cues and prompts can be deliberately used to influence behavior.Cueing: providing an antecedent just prior to a particular behavior.Furnishes information about which behaviors will be punished and which reinforced.Allows teachers, parents to reinforce behavior without resorting to punishment.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011PromptingPrompting: providing an additional cue after the first cueTwo principles for using cues and prompts effectively:Make sure environmental stimulus you want as a cue occurs right before your promptFade the prompt as soon as possibleExample: checklist when students work in pairs on peer tutoringGradually remove the support of the checklist, which serves as a prompt, when students internalize proceduresMonitor progress, reinforce good work, correct mistakesW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Teaching ApplicationsGuiding principles for teaching contexts:Clear, systematic praise for genuine accomplishmentsLink success to effort and ability—in order to build confidenceMake sure reinforcers are things students valueGive plenty of reinforcement when introducing new materialSet clear and specific goals so you know what to reinforceOffer a variety of reinforcers and allow students to chooseStructure situation around negative reinforcement rather than punishmentUse cues to help establish new behaviorSpecific approaches that utilize behavioral principles: the Good Behavior Game, Positive Behavior Support (PBS) based on a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA), learning objectives, and direct instructionMost useful when learning new behaviors or explicit information, and when learning is sequential or factualW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Positive Behavior Support based on a Functional Behavioral AssessmentFBA What are students getting out of the negative behavior? 1. Receive attention from others—teachers, parent, or peers.2. Escape from some unpleasant situation—an academic or social demand.3. Get a desired item or activity.4. Meet sensory needs, such as stimulation from rocking or flapping arms for some children with autism.PBS What positive behaviors could lead to the same results and what will support the student in learning the new positive behaviors?W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Learning ObjectivesInstructional objective: clear and unambiguous description of teacher’s educational aims for studentsRobert Mager: objectives should describe what students will be doing to demonstrate their achievement, how teacher will know when students have succeededThree parts to good objectives: 1. Intended student behavior: what must student do? 2. Conditions under which behavior occurs: how will behavior be recognized or tested? 3. Criteria for acceptable performance: how well has student done?Objectives useful under certain specific conditions:More successful in promoting learning with loosely structured activitiesUseful when significance of information is unclear from learning materials and activities themselves, i.e., objectives help focus students’ attention on learning goalsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Direct InstructionA.K.A., “explicit teaching” or “active teaching”Best applied to teaching of basic skills: science facts, mathematical computations, vocabulary and grammar rulesTaught step-by-step, assessed with standardized testsBarak Rosenshine: Six Teaching Functions of effective direct instruction 1. Review and check previous day’s work 2. Present new material 3. Provide guided practice 4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers 5. Provide independent practice 6. Review weekly and monthlyOther direct instruction approaches—Hunter; Good, Grouws, and Ebmeier—draw on similar elements of effective instructionW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Cognitive Perspectives on LearningCognitive theorists focus on thinking, learning, conceptualization, and problem solvingLearning is an active mental process: we plan our responses, use systems to help us remember, and organize materials Puts the individual back in the learning process: what we bring to the learning situation has a huge influence on how and what we learnW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Categorizing KnowledgeKnowledge as both means and end: existing knowledge guides new learning—the “scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”General knowledge vs. Domain-specific knowledge:General: applies to a variety of situationsDomain-specific: relates to particular task or subjectAlso categorize knowledge by how it’s manifestedDeclarative knowledge: can be declared, usually in wordsProcedural knowledge: “knowing how” to do something—knowledge that is demonstratedSelf-regulatory: “knowing when and why” to apply declarative and procedural knowledgeW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Information-Processing ModelEarly views had the analogy between mind and computer: information stored in three storage systemsSensory memory: holding system that maintains stimuli so that perceptual analysis can occurWorking memory: (short-term memory) holds 5-9 bits of info at a time for up to 20 secondsLong-term memory: stores huge amounts of info for long periods of time; may be coded verbally or visually or bothMemory = reconstruction: leads to accurate, partly accurate, or inaccurate recall; accurate retrieval depends partly on how info was learned.A more recent view of memory and cognition is called cognitive science, which emphasizes the role of working memory, attention, sensory memory, and interactions of the elements of the system. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Sensory MemorySensory memory = the initial system that briefly holds stimuli we perceive through our senses; other names for sensory memory are sensory buffer, iconic buffer (for images), and echoic memory for sounds. We attend to some stimuli and not to others—this attention is first step in learning.A challenge to teachers is to structure classroom environment to get and keep student attention at outset of lesson and keep them focused throughout the class.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Working MemoryWorking memory defined: where new information is held briefly and combined with knowledge from long-term memory.Resembles screen of computer—content is activated information, in-the-moment consciousness.Capacity = 5-9 separate new items at once or the amount of info we can rehearse in about 1.5 secondsRecent theories: two working memory systems—one for language-based information, one for nonverbal, spatial, visual informationDuration of info in working memory is short: 5-20 seconds.Easily overwhelmed if cognitive load (especially extraneous load) is too great.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Retaining Info in Working MemoryUse it or lose it: if info in working memory is not activated, it fadesMost people engage in specific strategies to keep itRehearsal: 2 typesMaintenance rehearsal — repeating information in your mindElaborative rehearsal — associating the info with something you already know (info in long-term memory)Not only improves working memory, but also helps channel info from short- to long-term memoryChunking: group or “chunk” individual bits of information into meaningful units (size doesn’t matter, # of bits does)W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Long-Term MemoryLong-term memory holds information that we move from working memory for indefinite storageVirtually unlimited, but not always easy to access specific information if much is stored over a long time3 main kinds of long-term memory: 1. Episodic: associated with particular times and places—personal memories of events of your own life 2. Procedural: how to do things—may take a while, but once learned, such knowledge is remembered for a long time 3. Semantic: memory for meaning: general concepts, principles, and their associations2 important ways of storing semantic memory Images: visual representations—”mind’s eye” Schemas: abstract structures, patterns, systems, scriptsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Storage and RetrievalHow info is processed initially has impact on recall.More likely to remember new material if you integrate it with information already stored in long-term memory.3 ways to facilitate this kind of integration: 1. Elaboration: add meaning to new info by connecting it to existing knowledge (apply schemas, for instance, or make analogies).Easier to recall because elaboration acts like rehearsal—keeps memory activated longer in working memory, which deepens its imprint in long-term memory.2. Organization: structuring information helps you remember both general ideas and specific examples; structure helps map your way back to info when you need it.3. Context: we learn physical and emotional aspects of context along with the information we process within that context; replicating context helps recall the information.Bottom line: the more completely information is processed when we first learn it, the better our chances of remembering it.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011MetacognitionMetacognition: individuals awareness of his/her own cognitive processes and how they work.Can intentionally use metacognitive understanding to regulate learningPlanning: deciding how much time to give to a task, what strategies to use, how to begin, etc.Monitoring: awareness of how much, how well I’m learningEvaluation: judgments about outcomes of thinking and learning—effectiveness of strategies, time allocation, etc.Metacognitive skills begin to develop at ages 5 to 7, and generally improve throughout school.Superior metacognitive skills can compensate for lower levels of ability, and can be taught.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Teaching ApplicationsSome guiding principles for teaching:Use previous knowledge, connections to focus attention and aid encodingHelp students organize material in meaningful chunksProvide review, repetition, and contextualizationExercise metacognitive skillsCommon techniques consistent with cognitive approaches:Underlining or highlightingNote-takingVisual aidsMnemonicsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Constructivist Perspectives on LearningAncestors: Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gestalt psychologyKey assumption: people create and construct knowledge rather than internalize it from the external environmentSeveral different approaches to constructivism:Psychological/Individual PiagetRadical PostmodernSocial VygotskyW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Psychological ConstructivismEmphasizes the individual’s reconstruction of external realityBuild accurate representations of the outside world, often using processes consistent with cognitive perspectives (schemas, for example)Knowledge is acquired by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledgePiaget typical of psychological constructivistsConstruction is a rational process generating increasingly complex reasoning—as in Piaget’s sequence of developmental stagesW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Radical ConstructivismThe extreme of psychological constructivism: no basis for evaluating or interpreting any belief is any better or worse than any other Knowledge constructed largely by interpersonal interactions and constraints of culture and ideologyNOT a mirror of external world, because of these interactions and limitationsConsistent with post-modernism, post-modernist critiques of American educationW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Social ConstructivismDraws on Vygotsky’s notion that learning is inherently social, embedded in cultural settingSocial interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning All higher-order mental processes, such as reasoning and problem solving, are mediated by psychological tools, such as language, signs, and symbols. Knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through “appropriating” the ways of acting and thinking provided by the culture W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011How is Knowledge Constructed?The realities and truths of the external world direct knowledge construction Information ProcessingInternal processes such as organization, assimilation, and accommodation direct knowledge construction Piaget Both external and internal factors direct knowledge construction Vygotsky W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Situated LearningDraws on the Vygotskys notion that learning is inherently social, embedded in cultural settingDescribed as “enculturation,” or a norming process: individuals adopt the norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes of a communityLearning prepares for participation in that community, whatever it may beEmphasizes that much of learning is situation-specific; therefore, students learn skills and knowledge in meaningful contexts with clear connections to “real-life” applicationsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Teaching ApplicationsSome guiding principles for teaching:Employ multiple strategies, diverse contexts for learningEmbed problems in “authentic tasks” that require students to apply what they are learningCreate environment of thinking, problem-solving, dialogue, openness, and toleranceKeep students’ ideas and responses at the center of instructionCommon techniques consistent with constructivism:Inquiry learning: teacher presents puzzling problem or question and students organize hypotheses, data collection and analysisCognitive apprenticeships: students observe experts, receive coaching, practice to gain proficiency, reflect on progress, and explore new approaches to cognitive tasksCooperative learning: working with others enhances learning by requiring students to elaborate, interpret, explain, argue, and coordinate information and procedures with others (jigsaw and scripted cooperation are two examples of such techniquesW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Practical Imperatives Ensure that positive actions are recognized and rewarded: Reinforcement strengthens behavior.Accompany all punishment with rewards for correct behavior: Emphasize the positive.Understand the function of negative behavior: Help students reach their goals through positive actions instead.Match instruction to learning goals: Direct teaching is useful when students have limited knowledge,Help students focus attention on the big ideas: Learning is difficult when you don’t know what is important.Avoid overwhelming working memory: Extraneous cognitive load limits learning.Build knowledge in long-term memory by making many connections: Deeply processed and elaborated information is easier to remember.Teach memory and learning strategies directly: Without guidance some students will never master powerful strategies.Create situations in which students actively construct meaning: To invent is to understand.Position students at the center of learning: Build on the their knowledge and interests.Provide authentic problems as a launching pad for learning: Useful knowledge grows from solving real-life challenges.Build collaborative skills among students and faculty: Cooperation leads to respect and critical thinking.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011