Giáo dục học - Chapter 5: Organizational culture ofschools

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Chapter 5Organizational Culture ofSchools McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Organizational Culture Definitions:Henry Mintzberg (1989) refers to culture as organization ideology, or “the traditions and beliefs of an organization that distinguish it from other organizations and infuse a certain life into the skeleton of its structure.” Stephen Robbins (1998) defines organization culture as “a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. Edgar Schein (1992), however, argues that the culture should be reserved for a “deeper level of basic assumptions, values, and beliefs” that become shared and taken for granted as the organization continues to be successful.Our general definition of organizational culture is a system of shared orientations that hold the unit together and give it a distinctive identity. Orientations are values, norms, and tacit assumptions.Levels of Organizational Culture DeepSuperficialAbstractConcreteTacit Assumptions--Abstract Premises aboutNature of human natureNature of human relationshipsNature of truth and realityRelationships with the environmentValues--conceptions of the desirableOpennessTrustCooperationIntimacyTeamworkNorms--Support your colleaguesDon’t criticize your superiorsHandle your own problemsBe supportive of studentsBe available to get your students extra helpW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Organizational CultureCulture as NormsExamples of NormsNever criticize colleagues in publicSupport your colleaguesHandle your own discipline problemsBe available for your students after schoolSupport the principalGet to school early in the morningBe in the hall by your room as classes change W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Organizational CultureCulture as Shared ValuesExamples of Core ValuesCommitment to the the schoolCommitment to teachingCooperation and teamworkTrust and group loyaltyEgalitarianismServe your studentsHigh academic achievement W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Organizational CultureCulture as Tacit AssumptionsExamples of Tacit AssumptionsTruth ultimately comes from teachers themselves.Teachers are capable of making decisions in the best interests of students.Truth is determined through debate, which often produces conflict and the testing of ideas in an open forum.Teachers are family; they accept, respect, and take care of each other.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Functions of CultureCreates distinctions among organizationsProvides the organization with a sense of identityFacilitates development of commitment to the groupEnhances stability in the social systemSocial glue that binds the organization togetherProvides standards of behavior CAUTION: Strong cultures can promote or impede.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Rites, Ceremonies, & ConsequencesRites of Passage ConsequencesStudent teaching Facilitate transitions to new roles; Lunch duty socialization RetirementRites of Degradation Negative evaluation Reaffirm appropriate behaviorPublic rebukeRites of Enhancement Teacher of the year Reinforce appropriate behaviorDebate team championsFootball championsRites of IntegrationHoliday party Enhances cohesivenessTeacher’s loungeCoffee group W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011School Culture: Symbol SystemsSymbols through which school culture is expressed:Stories--narratives that are based on true events, but often combine truth and fiction.Myths--stories that communicate an unquestioned belief that cannot be demonstrated by the facts.Legends--stories that are retold and elaborated with fictional details.Icons--physical artifacts that are used to communicate the culture (logos, mottoes, and trophies).Rituals--are the routine ceremonies and rites that signal what is important in the school.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011School Culture: MetaphorsThe FamilyThe MachineThe CircusThe FactoryThe JungleThe ZooThe Fad ShopThe AcademyThe ClubW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011School CultureExamples of Four School CulturesA Culture of EfficacyA Culture of TrustA Culture of Academic OptimismA Culture of ControlW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A School Culture of EfficacyA Culture of Efficacy refers to shared “perceptions of teachers in a specific school that the faculty as a whole can execute courses of action required to positively affect student achievement.”(Goddard, Hoy, & Woolfolk Hoy, 2000) A Culture of Efficacy emphasizes academic performance and norms that influence actions, habits, decisions, & ultimately, the achievement of the school.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A Culture of EfficacyDirectly linked with other positive school qualitiesParental involvement OrderlinessTeacher innovation Lower drop-out, suspension ratesA Culture of Efficacy strengthens the efficacy of an individual teacher, and influences behavior :Greater effortMore perseveranceMore resilienceW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A Culture of EfficacyBandura’s 4 sources of self-efficacy also apply to development of collective efficacy:Mastery experienceVicarious experienceSocial persuasionEmotional arousalW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A Culture of EfficacyAdministrators can build a Culture of School EfficacySupport MASTERY EXPERIENCES. Give teachers time to plan and collaborate and celebrate their success.Provide teachers with positive models; conferences, workshops, and visits to outstanding school, that is, cultivate positive VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES.Foster professionalism and reflective teaching, and reward those who collaborate and share feedback to enhance SOCIAL PERSUASION.Attend to teachers’ AFFECTIVE STATE by providing encouragement during times of frustration. Frame performance as a function of acquired skill rather than inherent capability. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Sources of EfficacyMastery ExperienceVicarious ExperienceSocial PersuasionAffective StateAnalysesAttributions,andInterpretations Analysis of theTeaching TaskAssessment ofTeachingCompetenceEstimationof CollectiveTeacherEfficacyPerformanceConsequences ofCollective EfficacyEffortPersistenceSuccessA Model of Collective EfficacyW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A School Culture of TrustAnother perspective on School Culture can be mapped in terms of the sharedcollective beliefs of the faculty about trust, which is a critical dimension of schoollife. A CULTURE OF TRUST in schools is one in which the teachers trust: their students their colleagues their parents the principalW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A Culture of Academic OptimismAnother perspective on School Culture can be mapped in terms of the sharedcollective beliefs of the faculty about efficacy, trust, and academic emphasis—schools which have all three have a Culture of Academic Optimism. Academic Emphasis Faculty Trust Collective in Parents EfficacyW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011A School Culture of ControlAnother perspective on school culture can be mapped in terms of the sharedand collective beliefs of the faculty about controlling students. A Custodial School Culture is characterized by a rigid control system over students. The school is autocratic with the flow of power and control downward from teachers to students. Students are perceived as irresponsible and undisciplined persons who must be controlled by punitive sanctions. Impersonality, cynicism, and mistrust pervade the school; the norms and values are custodial.A Humanistic School Culture is an educational community in which students learn through cooperative interaction and experience. Learning and behavior are viewed in psychological terms, and misbehavior is seen as deviate behavior that needs to be understood. Self-discipline is substituted for strict teacher control. The school is attempting to create an atmosphere to meet student needs; the norms and values are humanistic.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY: FORM PCIThe custodialism of the school climate can be measured by the Pupil Control Ideology Form (PCI). See Sample items from the PCIDIRECTIONS: THE FOLLOWING ARE STATEMENTS ABOUT YOUR SCHOOL. PLEASE INDICATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH EACH STATEMENT CHARACTERIZES YOUR SCHOOL BY CIRCLING THE APPROPRIATE RESPONSE. SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree U=Undecided A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree1. It is desirable to require pupils to sit in assigned seats during assembly......... SD D U A SD 2. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar................ SD D U A SD 3. Pupils often misbehave to make the teacher look bad............. SD D U A SD 4. Directing sarcastic remarks toward a defiant pupil is a good disciplinary technique.................................... SD D U A SD 5. The best principals give unquestioning support to teachers in disciplining students SD D U A SD For the complete instrument and details for scoring, see Hoy & Tarter (1997b) or K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Summary of Key Elements of School CultureCore ValuesSalient NormsRites of PassageRites of IntegrationCollective TrustCollective EfficacyCollective Views on Pupil ControlAcademic Optimism W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Cultivate a culture of academic optimism: A sense of helplessness immobilizes participants whereas optimism empowers.Build rituals that reinforce positive norms: A positive and cohesive culture can enhance effectiveness.Design opportunities for teachers and parents to learn to cooperate and trust each other: Faculty trust in parents facilitates academic achievement.Imbue the school with a sense of the importance of individual needs: A humanistic perspective develops strong student self-concepts and reduces alienation.Use mistakes as learning opportunities: Be positive about learning in all situations—crises are learning opportunities.Create a culture of openness and authenticity: Transparency and truth promote trust.Celebrate academic success in school: Realistic academic goals facilitate further success.Orchestrate harmony among students, teachers, administrators, and parents: Such cooperation is essential for the academic success of all students.Discover the basic informal norms of the school: Norms are a good gauge as to what you can and cannot change easily. Assess and improve the culture of your school: Use multiple frames to evaluate school culture.Practical Imperatives