Kế toán, kiểm toán - Chapter 13: Relevant costs for decision making

Relevant Costs for Decision MakingChapter 13Learning Objective 1Identify relevant and irrelevant costs and benefits in a decision.Cost Concepts for Decision Making A relevant cost is a cost that differs between alternatives.12Identifying Relevant CostsAn avoidable cost is a cost that can be eliminated, in whole or in part, by choosing one alternative over another. Avoidable costs are relevant costs. Unavoidable costs are irrelevant costs.Two broad categories of costs are never relevant in any decision. They include: Sunk costs.Future costs that do not differ between the alternatives.Relevant Cost Analysis: A Two-Step ProcessEliminate costs and benefits that do not differ between alternatives.Use the remaining costs and benefits that differ between alternatives in making the decision. The costs that remain are the differential, or avoidable, costs.Step 1Step 2Different Costs for Different PurposesCosts that are relevant in one decision situation may not be relevant in another context. Thus, in each decision situation, the manager must examine the data at hand and isolate the relevant costs. Identifying Relevant CostsCynthia, a Boston student, is considering visiting her friend in New York. She can drive or take the train. By car, it is 230 miles to her friend’s apartment. She is trying to decide which alternative is less expensive and has gathered the following information:$45 per month × 8 months$2.70 per gallon ÷ 27 MPG$24,000 cost – $10,000 salvage value ÷ 5 yearsIdentifying Relevant CostsIdentifying Relevant CostsWhich costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision?The cost of the car is a sunk cost and is not relevant to the current decision.However, the cost of gasoline is clearly relevant if she decides to drive. If she takes the train, the cost would not be incurred, so it varies depending on the decision.The annual cost of insurance is not relevant. It will remain the same if she drives or takes the train.Identifying Relevant CostsWhich costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision?The cost of maintenance and repairs is relevant. In the long-run these costs depend upon miles driven. The monthly school parking fee is not relevant because it must be paid if Cynthia drives or takes the train.At this point, we can see that some of the average cost of $0.619 per mile are relevant and others are not.Identifying Relevant CostsWhich costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision?The decline in resale value due to additional miles is a relevant cost. The round-trip train fare is clearly relevant. If she drives the cost can be avoided. Relaxing on the train is relevant even though it is difficult to assign a dollar value to the benefit. The kennel cost is not relevant because Cynthia will incur the cost if she drives or takes the train.Identifying Relevant CostsWhich costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision?The cost of parking in New York is relevant because it can be avoided if she takes the train. The benefits of having a car in New York and the problems of finding a parking space are both relevant but are difficult to assign a dollar amount.Identifying Relevant CostsFrom a financial standpoint, Cynthia would be better off taking the train to visit her friend. Some of the non-financial factor may influence her final decision.Total and Differential Cost ApproachesThe management of a company is considering a new labor saving machine that rents for $3,000 per year. Data about the company’s annual sales and costs with and without the new machine are:Total and Differential Cost ApproachesAs you can see, the only costs that differ between the alternatives are the direct labor costs savings and the increase in fixed rental costs.We can efficiently analyze the decision bylooking at the different costs and revenues and arrive at the same solution.Total and Differential Cost ApproachesUsing the differential approach is desirable for two reasons:Only rarely will enough information be available to prepare detailed income statements for both alternatives.Mingling irrelevant costs with relevant costs may cause confusion and distract attention away from the information that is really critical.Learning Objective 2Prepare an analysis showing whether a product line or other business segment should be dropped or retained.Adding/Dropping SegmentsOne of the most important decisions managers make is whether to add or drop a business segment. Ultimately, a decision to drop an old segment or add a new one is going to hinge primarily on the impact the decision will have on net operating income. To assess this impact, it is necessary to carefully analyze the costs.Adding/Dropping SegmentsDue to the declining popularity of digital watches, Lovell Company’s digital watch line has not reported a profit for several years. Lovell is considering discontinuing this product line.A Contribution Margin ApproachDECISION RULELovell should drop the digital watch segment only if its profit would increase. Lovell will compare the contribution margin that would be lost to the costs that would be avoided if the line was to be dropped. Let’s look at this solution.Adding/Dropping SegmentsAdding/Dropping SegmentsAn investigation has revealed that the fixed general factory overhead and fixed general administrative expenses will not be affected by dropping the digital watch line. The fixed general factory overhead and general administrative expenses assigned to this product would be reallocated to other product lines.Adding/Dropping SegmentsThe equipment used to manufacturedigital watches has no resalevalue or alternative use.Should Lovell retain or dropthe digital watch segment?A Contribution Margin ApproachRetainComparative Income ApproachThe Lovell solution can also be obtained by preparing comparative income statements showing results with and without the digital watch segment.Let’s look at this second approach.If the digital watch line is dropped, the company loses $300,000 in contribution margin. On the other hand, the general factory overhead would be the same under both alternatives, so it is irrelevant.The salary of the product line manager would disappear, so it is relevant to the decision.The depreciation is a sunk cost. Also, remember that the equipment has no resale value or alternative use, so the equipment and the depreciation expense associated with it are irrelevant to the decision. The complete comparative income statements reveal that Lovell would earn $40,000 of additional profit by retaining the digital watch line. Beware of Allocated Fixed CostsWhy should we keep the digital watch segment when it’s showing a $100,000 loss?Beware of Allocated Fixed CostsThe answer lies in the way we allocate common fixed costs to our products.Beware of Allocated Fixed CostsOur allocations can make a segment look less profitable than it really is.Including unavoidable common fixed costs makes the product line appear to be unprofitable.Learning Objective 3Prepare a make or buy analysis.The Make or Buy DecisionWhen a company is involved in more than one activity in the entire value chain, it is vertically integrated. A decision to carry out one of the activities in the value chain internally, rather than to buy externally from a supplier is called a “make or buy” decision.Vertical Integration- AdvantagesSmoother flow of parts and materialsBetter quality controlRealize profitsVertical Integration- DisadvantageCompanies may fail to take advantage of suppliers who can create economies of scale advantage by pooling demand from numerous companies. While the economics of scale factor can be appealing, a company must be careful to retain control over activities that are essential to maintaining its competitive position. The Make or Buy Decision: An ExampleEssex Company manufactures part 4A that is used in one of its products.The unit product cost of this part is:The Make or Buy DecisionThe special equipment used to manufacture part 4A has no resale value.The total amount of general factory overhead, which is allocated on the basis of direct labor hours, would be unaffected by this decision.The $30 unit product cost is based on 20,000 parts produced each year.An outside supplier has offered to provide the 20,000 parts at a cost of $25 per part. Should we accept the supplier’s offer?The Make or Buy DecisionThe avoidable costs associated with making part 4A include direct materials, direct labor, variable overhead, and the supervisor’s salary.The Make or Buy DecisionThe depreciation of the special equipment represents a sunk cost. The equipment has no resale value, thus its cost and associated depreciation are irrelevant to the decision.The Make or Buy DecisionNot avoidable; irrelevant. If the product is dropped, it will be reallocated to other products.The Make or Buy DecisionShould we make or buy part 4A? Given that the total avoidable costs are less than the cost of buying the part, Essex should continue to make the part.Opportunity CostAn opportunity cost is the benefit that is foregone as a result of pursuing some course of action.Opportunity costs are not actual cash outlays and are not recorded in the formal accounts of an organization.How would this concept potentially relate to the Essex Company?Learning Objective 4Prepare an analysis showing whether a special order should be accepted.Key Terms and ConceptsA special order is a one-time order that is not considered part of the company’s normal ongoing business.When analyzing a special order, only the incremental costs and benefits are relevant. Since the existing fixed manufacturing overhead costs would not be affected by the order, they are not relevant.Special OrdersJet, Inc. makes a single product whose normal selling price is $20 per unit.A foreign distributor offers to purchase 3,000 units for $10 per unit. This is a one-time order that would not affect the company’s regular business.Annual capacity is 10,000 units, but Jet, Inc. is currently producing and selling only 5,000 units.Should Jet accept the offer?Special Orders$8 variable costSpecial OrdersIf Jet accepts the special order, the incremental revenue will exceed the incremental costs. In other words, net operating income will increase by $6,000. This suggests that Jet should accept the order.Note: This answer assumes that the fixed costs are unavoidable and that variable marketing costs must be incurred on the special order.Quick Check  Northern Optical ordinarily sells the X-lens for $50. The variable production cost is $10, the fixed production cost is $18 per unit, and the variable selling cost is $1. A customer has requested a special order for 10,000 units of the X-lens to be imprinted with the customer’s logo. This special order would not involve any selling costs, but Northern Optical would have to purchase an imprinting machine for $50,000. (see the next page) Quick Check  What is the rock bottom minimum price below which Northern Optical should not go in its negotiations with the customer? In other words, below what price would Northern Optical actually be losing money on the sale? There is ample idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting machine has no further use after this order.a. $50b. $10c. $15d. $29 What is the rock bottom minimum price below which Northern Optical should not go in its negotiations with the customer? In other words, below what price would Northern Optical actually be losing money on the sale? There is ample idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting machine has no further use after this order.a. $50b. $10c. $15d. $29Quick Check Variable production cost $100,000Additional fixed cost + 50,000Total relevant cost $150,000Number of units 10,000Average cost per unit = $15Learning Objective 5Determine the most profitable use of a constrained resource and the value of obtaining more of the constrained resource.Key Terms and ConceptsWhen a limited resource of some type restricts the company’s ability to satisfy demand, the company is said to have a constraint.The machine or process that is limiting overall output is called the bottleneck – it is the constraint.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceFixed costs are usually unaffected in these situations, so the product mix that maximizes the company’s total contribution margin should ordinarily be selected.A company should not necessarily promote those products that have the highest unit contribution margins. Rather, total contribution margin will be maximized by promoting those products or accepting those orders that provide the highest contribution margin in relation to the constraining resource. Utilization of a Constrained Resource: An ExampleEnsign Company produces two products and selected data are shown below:Utilization of a Constrained Resource: An ExampleMachine A1 is the constrained resource and is being used at 100% of its capacity. There is excess capacity on all other machines. Machine A1 has a capacity of 2,400 minutes per week.Should Ensign focus its efforts on Product 1 or Product 2?Quick Check  How many units of each product can be processed through Machine A1 in one minute? Product 1 Product 2a. 1 unit 0.5 unitb. 1 unit 2.0 unitsc. 2 units 1.0 unitd. 2 units 0.5 unit How many units of each product can be processed through Machine A1 in one minute? Product 1 Product 2a. 1 unit 0.5 unitb. 1 unit 2.0 unitsc. 2 units 1.0 unitd. 2 units 0.5 unitQuick Check Just checking to make sure you are with us.Quick Check  What generates more profit for the company, using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 2?a. Product 1b. Product 2c. They both would generate the same profit.d. Cannot be determined.Quick Check  What generates more profit for the company, using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 2?a. Product 1b. Product 2c. They both would generate the same profit.d. Cannot be determined.With one minute of machine A1, we could make 1 unit of Product 1, with a contribution margin of $24, or 2 units of Product 2, each with a contribution margin of $15. 2 × $15 = $30 > $24Utilization of a Constrained ResourceThe key is the contribution margin per unit of the constrained resource.Ensign should emphasize Product 2 because it generates a contribution margin of $30 per minute of the constrained resource relative to $24 per minute for Product 1.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceEnsign can maximize its contribution margin by first producing Product 2 to meet customer demand and then using any remaining capacity to produce Product 1. The calculations would be performed as follows.The key is the contribution margin per unit of the constrained resource.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceLet’s see how this plan would work.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceLet’s see how this plan would work.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceLet’s see how this plan would work.Utilization of a Constrained ResourceAccording to the plan, we will produce 2,200 units of Product 2 and 1,300 of Product 1. Our contribution margin looks like this.The total contribution margin for Ensign is $64,200.Quick Check  Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial furniture from select hardwoods. The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is this enough hardwood to satisfy demand?a. Yesb. NoQuick Check  Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial furniture from select hardwoods. The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is this enough hardwood to satisfy demand?a. Yesb. No(2  600) + (10  100 ) = 2,200 > 2,000Quick Check  The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. What plan would maximize profits?a. 500 chairs and 100 tablesb. 600 chairs and 80 tablesc. 500 chairs and 80 tablesd. 600 chairs and 100 tablesQuick Check  The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. What plan would maximize profits?a. 500 chairs and 100 tablesb. 600 chairs and 80 tablesc. 500 chairs and 80 tablesd. 600 chairs and 100 tablesQuick Check  As before, Colonial Heritage’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Assume the company follows the plan we have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to obtain more hardwood?a. $40 per board footb. $25 per board footc. $20 per board footd. Zero As before, Colonial Heritage’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Assume the company follows the plan we have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to obtain more hardwood?a. $40 per board footb. $25 per board footc. $20 per board footd. ZeroQuick Check The additional wood would be used to make tables. In this use, each board foot of additional wood will allow the company to earn an additional $20 of contribution margin and profit.Managing ConstraintsIt is often possible for a manager to increase the capacity of a bottleneck, which is called relaxing (or elevating) the constraint, in numerous ways such as:Working overtime on the bottleneck.Subcontracting some of the processing that would be done at the bottleneck. Investing in additional machines at the bottleneck.Shifting workers from non-bottleneck processes to the bottleneck.Focusing business process improvement efforts on the bottleneck. Reducing defective units processed through the bottleneck.These methods and ideas are all consistent with the Theory of Constraints, which was introduced in Chapter 1.Learning Objective 6Prepare an analysis showing whether joint products should be sold at the split-off point or processed further.Joint CostsIn some industries, a number of end products are produced from a single raw material input.Two or more products produced from a common input are called joint products.The point in the manufacturing process where each joint product can be recognized as a separate product is called the split-off point.Joint ProductsJointInputCommonProductionProcessSplit-OffPointOilGasolineChemicalsFor example, in the petroleum refining industry, a large number of products are extracted from crude oil, including gasoline, jet fuel, home heating oil, lubricants, asphalt, and various organic chemicals.Joint ProductsSeparateProcessingSeparateProcessingFinalSaleFinalSaleFinalSaleSeparateProductCostsJointInputCommonProductionProcessSplit-OffPointOilGasolineChemicalsJoint costsare incurred up to the split-off pointThe Pitfalls of AllocationJoint costs are traditionally allocated among different products at the split-off point. A typical approach is to allocate joint costs according to the relative sales value of the end products. Although allocation is needed for some purposes such as balance sheet inventory valuation, allocations of this kind are very dangerous for decision making.Sell or Process FurtherJoint costs are irrelevant in decisions regarding what to do with a product from the split-off point forward. Therefore, these costs should not be allocated to end products for decision-making purposes.With respect to sell or process further decisions, it is profitable to continue processing a joint product after the split-off point so long as the incremental revenue from such processing exceeds the incremental processing costs incurred after the split-off point.Sell or Process Further: An ExampleSawmill, Inc. cuts logs from which unfinished lumber and sawdust are the immediate joint products.Unfinished lumber is sold “as is” or processed further into finished lumber.Sawdust can also be sold “as is” to gardening wholesalers or processed further into “presto-logs.”Sell or Process FurtherData about Sawmill’s joint products includes:Sell or Process FurtherSell or Process FurtherSell or Process FurtherThe lumber should be processed further and the sawdust should be sold at the split-off point.Activity-Based Costing and Relevant CostsABC can be used to help identify potentially relevant costs for decision-making purposes.However, managers should exercise caution against reading more into this “traceability” than really exists. People have a tendency to assume that if a cost is traceable to a segment, then the cost is automatically avoidable, which is untrue. Before making a decision, managers must decide which of the potentially relevant costs are actually avoidable.End of Chapter 13