Kĩ thuật lập trình - Chapter 19: Overloading operators

efix") & ("address") * ( "indirection") – –("postfix") name() typeid() type() dynamic_cast static_cast const_cast reinterpret_cast new new[] delete delete[] (type) sizeof() OPERATOR PRECEDENCE TABLE ■ 797 ■ ASCII CODE TABLE decimal octal hex character decimal octal hex character 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E 3F (BLANK) ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? 040 041 042 043 044 045 046 047 050 051 052 053 054 055 056 057 060 061 062 063 064 065 066 067 070 071 072 073 074 075 076 077 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 020 021 022 023 024 025 026 027 030 031 032 033 034 035 036 037 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F (NUL) (SOH) (STX) (ETX) (EOT) (ENQ) (ACK) (BEL) (BS) (HT) (LF) (VT) (FF) (CR) (SO) (SI) (DLE) (DC1) (DC2) (DC3) (DC4) (DC5) (SYN) (ETB) (CAN) (EM) (SUB) (ESC) (FS) (GS) (RS) (US) 798 ■ A P P E N D I X ■ ASCII CODE TABLE (CONTINUED) decimal octal hex character decimal octal hex character 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6A 6B 6C 6D 6E 6F 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 7A 7B 7C 7D 7E 7F ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ (DEL) 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 5F @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ASCII CODE TABLE ■ 799 ■ SCREEN CONTROL SEQUENCES The following escape sequences reflect the ANSI standard for screen control. Replace the # sign by the appropriate decimal number in all cases. ESC[#A Cursor # lines up ESC[#B Cursor # lines down ESC[#C Cursor # characters right ESC[#D Cursor # characters left ESC[z,sH or ESC[z;sf Put cursor in line z and column s ESC[s Save cursor position ESC[u Load saved cursor position ESC[#K # = 0: Delete from cursor position to line end # = 1:Delete from start of line to cursor position # = 2: Delete whole line ESC[2J Clear screen ESC[#(;#...)opm # = 0: all attributes normal # = 1: switch double intensity on # = 4: Underline on (monochrome screens) # = 5: Blink on # = 7: Inverse on # = 3x: Foreground color # = 4x: Background color x = 0: black x = 4: blue x = 1: red x = 5: magenta x = 2: green x = 6: cyan x = 3: yellow x = 7:white ESC[c1;c2p Change key assignments: The key with decimal code c1 will then return code c2. To enable these escape sequences, you must first load an appropriate screen device driver. To do so for Windows 9x, place the following line in your CONFIG.SYS file DEVICE = C:\Windows\Command\Ansi.sys Win NT and Win 2000 do not supply the ANSI screen control characters. Correspond- ing functions based on system calls are offered for download. 800 ■ A P P E N D I X ■ LITERATURE International Standard ISO/IEC 14882, Programming Languages—C++; published by American National Standards Institute, New York NY, 1998. International Standard ISO/IEC 9899:1999(E), Programming Languages—C; published by ISO Copyright Office, Case postale 56, CH-1211, Geneva 20, 1999. Stroustrup, Bjarne, The C++ Programming Language, Addison Wesley, 2000. Josuttis, Nicolai, The C++ Standard Library, Addison Wesley, 1999. LITERATURE ■ 801 This page intentionally left blank 803 Note: Italicized page locators indicate figures. index Symbols &, 223, 231, 691 &&, 91 +, 50, 82, 85, 157 ++, 85, 355 -, 82 --, 85, 355, 420, 755 *, 82, 233, 255, 355, 691, 755 /, 82 %, 82 ->, 255, 755 =, 87 +=, 50, 87 -=, 87, 355 *=, 87, 157 /=, 87 %=, 87 ==, 88, 159 !=, 88, 159 <, 88, 159 <=, 88, 159 >, 88, 159 >=, 88, 159 <<, 9, 88, 229, 429 >>, 44, 229, 429 ::, 209 ?:, 109 [], 691, 755 //, 91 /, 707 +-, 355 ‘\n’, 51, 187 (), 691 A Abstract classes, 565-585 concrete classes versus, 569 deriving, 569 and inhomogeneous lists, 574, 575-577 pointers and references to, 570 pure virtual methods for, 566 virtual assignment in, 572, 573 Abstraction, 245 Access methods, 274, 275 AccFile class, 656 append() method of, 650, 651 Account class, 267, 392, 393 access methods for, 274 with constructors, 266 defining, 648 methods of, 248 read-only methods in, 276 sample class, 272 Account management index file, 655 accPtr array pointers in, 364 accSort() function, 682, 683 Accuracy, 21, 786 Adapter classes, 753 access to objects in, 761 constructors for, 757 deletion in, 765 insertion in, 759 Addition, 82, 353, 417 Addresses, array, 351 Address operator, 231, 412 Address space, hash file, 658 Algorithm library within C++ standard library, 723 Alignment and fill characters, 67 setting, 67 Ambiguity, 591 Ambiguous keys, 769 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 3 Ampersand character, 223, 231, 691 Analysis, 245 AND operator, 91 Angled brackets and header files, 47 template arguments stated in, 737 Appending in arrays, 485 at end-of-file, 639 list elements, 465, 467 append() method, 333, 481, 485, 655 for class AccFile, 650 Applications dynamic matrices, 694, 695 index files, 652, 653 inhomogeneous lists, 574-575 area() function defining and calling, 176, 177 Argument pointer, 685 Arguments, 43 access to, 685 arrays as, 356 command line, 366, 367 functions without, 45 macros called with, 123 objects as, 235 objects passed as, 282 passing, 178 pointer arrays as, 683 pointers as, 235 template, 730, 731 variable number of, 684, 685, 686 argv array in memory, 366 Arithmetic operators, 20, 412 binary, 82 83 precedence of, 84 unary, 84, 85 Arithmetic shifts, 709 Arithmetic type conversions and precedence, 707 Arithmetic types, 20, 21 in assignments, 145 arr array in memory, 322 Array elements, 323 addressing, 353 arrays as, 331 index for, 323 pointers interrelated with, 352 Arrays appending/deleting in, 485 as arguments, 356 as array elements, 331 class FloatArr, 427 class representing, 426, 427 defining, 322, 323 dynamic, 461 804 ■ I N D E X dynamic storage allocation for, 460, 461 encapsulating, 333 initializing, 324, 325 length of, 357 member, 332 multidimensional, 330, 331 name and address of, 351 parameters declared as, 357 of pointers, 364 pointers moved in, 355 and pointer variables, 351 sample program, 350, 352 as sequential containers, 751 subscript operator for, 427 Arrow operator, 255 Article class, 287, 311 copy constructor of, 310 ASCII code (American Standard Code for Informa- tion Interchange), 17, 800 Assignment operator, 87, 253, 412 overloading, 489 Assignments, 279, 488, 489 implicit type conversions in, 145, 531 type conversions in, 145, 532, 533 virtual, 572, 573. See also Compound assignments Associative arrays, 427 Associative container classes, 769 Associative containers, 750, 751, 768, 769 and bitsets, 751 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cells header of, 714, 715 representing, 714 at() method, 165, 761 auto keyword, 205 Automatic lifetime, 199 auto objects, 205 auto specifier, 204 B back() method and container classes vector, deque, and list, 761 Backslashes, 29 bad_cast, 553 badbit, 645 Base classes, 383, 501 accessibility of, 589 access to members in, 503, 509 calling methods in, 513 conversions in references to, 535 converting to, 530, 531 multiple indirect, 590, 591 virtual, 592, 593 with virtual destructors, 548, 549 Base class object assignment, 533 Base class pointer conversion, 535 BaseE1 class, 575 defining, 574 Base initializers, 511, 595, 597, 655 Base subobject, 505 begin() method, 755, 769 Bell Laboratories, 3 Bias, 786 Bidirectional iterators, 755 Binary arithmetic operators, 82, 83 Binary bitwise operators, 713 Binary complement, 143 Binary mode file opened in, 638 Binary operator, 415, 417 and operands, 82 Binary search algorithm, 643 Binary trees, 187 Binding, 551 Bit coded data, 707 Bit-fields, 714 defining, 715 Bitmap container class, 774, 775 Bitmaps raster images represented with, 774, 775 Bit masks, 710, 711 creating, 713 using, 712 Bit patterns retaining, 143 Bits deleting, 711 manipulating, 777 Bitsets, 774, 775, 776, 777 associative containers and, 751 declaring, 775 Bitwise AND operator, 711 Bitwise exclusive OR operator, 711 INDEX ■ 805 Bitwise operators, 412, 706, 707, 751 for bit manipulation, 777 in compound assignments, 713 for creating bit masks, 713 Bitwise OR operator, 711 Bitwise shift operators, 707, 708, 709 Blocks, building, 97 Block scope object defined with, 199 Boolean constants, 23 Boolean operator precedence, 91 Boolean values, 17 output of, 68, 69, 71 types for, 16 bool type, 17, 23, 91 Braces and functions without arguments, 45 and variables, 33 Brackets and parameters for macros, 123 in syntax descriptions, 612 Branches, 125 break statement, 113 sample program containing, 112 Bresenham algorithm, 776, 777 Bubble sort algorithm, 334 Built-in types, 17 C C programming language, 3, 49, 51 standard library header files, 48 C++ characteristics of, 2, 3 conventions in, 31 developing/translating programs in, 6, 7 historical perspective on, 3 keywords in, 30 programming language, 3 sample program, 8, 18 standard library, 7, 9, 48, 173, 723, 751, 753, 773 calc() function, 618, 619 Calling environment, 611 Capacities, 5, 763 capital() function defining, 182 Car class, 504 accessing members of, 506 virtual method table for, 550 Case conversion and macros, 129 Case labels, 111 Casting, 147 Castle class, 514, 515 Cast operator, 147 catch block, 615 nested, 616, 617 syntax of, 612, 613 Catching exceptions, 614 cctype header file, 129 Cell base class and derived classes, 574 cerr stream, 58, 59 cfloat header file, 21 Character by character string comparison, 159 Character codes, 17, 69 Character constants, 23, 25 examples for, 24 Character manipulation standard macros for, 128 Characters, 17 output of, 68, 69 reading and writing, 75 testing, 129 types for, 16 Character set, 17 char arrays, 327 CHAR_MAX, 19 CHAR_MIN, 19 char pointers, 351 array of, 367 sample function, 364 char type, 17, 19, 25, 112 char vectors, 327 cin, 429 cin stream, 47, 49, 58, 61 Class arrays declaring, 329 sample program, 328 Class(es), 5, 245 abstract, 565-585 adapter, 753 806 ■ I N D E X associative container, 769 base, 501 container, 753 defining, 246, 247 derived, 501 dynamic members of, 479, 480 dynamic storage allocation for, 458 example of, 246 exception, 611 friend, 424, 425 and friend functions, 423 and global functions, 51 I/O stream, 59 iterator, 755 multiply-derived, 588, 589 naming, 247 operators for, 413. See also Abstract classes; Adapter classes; Base classes; Derived classes; Type conversion for classes class keyword, 247, 257 Class member access operator, 253 Class-specific constants, 309 Class template, 723 defining, 725 for sequences, 753 clear() method, 70, 645 for deleting objects in container classes, 765 for erasing containers, 771 and maps/multimaps, 773 Client class, 303 climits header file, 19 clog stream, 58, 59 close() method, 389 Closing files, 388, 389 CLS macro, 123 cmath header file, 41 Collision resolution, 658 Collisions, 658 Colons after labels, 113 Command line arguments, 367 sample program, 366 Comma operator, 412 syntax for, 101 Commas for separating member initializers, 301 Comments C++ program with, 10 examples of, 11 Comparative operators, 88, 159, 355 Comparator class, 753 compare() function, 689 Comparisons results of, 89, 159, 355 Compiler, 7 Complex declarations, 690 operators and, 691 rules for evaluating, 691 complex header file, 48 Compound assignments, 145 bitwise operators in, 713 demonstration of, 86 operators, 87 Compound conditions, 91 Concatenation operators, 50, 157 Concrete classes abstract classes versus, 569 Conditional expressions, 109 compilation, 790 structogram for, 108 Conditional inclusion, 126, 127 Conditional operator precedence, 109 conio.h header file, 132 Constants, 23, 25 class-specific, 309 const_iterator type, 755 const keyword, 34, 36, 64, 223 const member object declaration, 303 Const objects/methods accessing, 276, 277 pointers to, 361 Constructor calls, 594, 595 and initialization, 595 sample program, 268 in virtual base classes, 597 Constructors, 251, 465 Account class with, 266 for adapter classes, 757 calling, 269, 299 conversion, 442, 443 copy, 279 declaring, 267 INDEX ■ 807 Constructors (continued) default, 269, 279 defining, 266, 267 initializing, 269 with inline definitions, 273 task of, 267 of vector, list, and deque, 757. See also Destructors Container adapters, 752 Container classes, 753, 768 deleting objects in, 765 Containers, 749-782 description of, 751 length and capacity of, 763 positioning and iterating in, 755 types of, 750, 751 Containers Library, 751, 753 Contiguous memory space, 323 continue statement, 113 Control, 28 Controlling expression, 97 ControlPoint class, 424, 425 Conversion constructors, 442, 443 Conversion functions, 443 conversion constructor versus, 445 defining, 445 “Cooked mode,” 386 Copy constructor, 279 effect of standard, 486 for FloatArr class, 486, 487 proprietary version of, 487 cos() function, 40 Counter initializing, 99 count() method and maps/multimaps, 773 count variable, 643 cout, 9, 30, 32 cout stream, 47, 49, 58, 61 Coworker class, 566, 567 assignment for, 572, 573 CPU registers, 205 cstdlib header file, 45 C strings initializing, 326 specializing function template for, 732 and string class, 327 ctime() function, 167 ctype.h header file, 48 Current file position, 381 currentTime() global function, 284, 285 D Data abstraction, 3, 245, 501 bit coding, 707 class-specific, 305 encapsulation, 3, 245, 273 structures, 463 Data blocks transferring, 391 Data handling with traditional procedural programming, 5 Data members, 51, 245 and methods, 505 static, 304, 305 Date class methods, 288 Daytime class operators, 414 DayTime sample class, 280 Debuggers, 7 DEC Alpha workstations and bit-fields, 715 Decimal constant, 23 Decimals floating-point numbers represented as, 25 Declarations, 41 within header files, 47 Declaring sequences, 756, 757 dec manipulator, 63, 73 Decrement operator, 85 and bidirectional iterators, 755 Default arguments, 182, 183 defining, 182, 183 rules for and setting of, 735 of templates, 734, 735 default constructors, 269, 279, 299, 461 Default destructors, 271 default label, 111 Default settings, for flags, 61 #define directive, 121, 127 enum constants contrasted with, 309 working with, 124, 125 delete operator, 455, 456, 457, 459 808 ■ I N D E X delete[] operator, 461, 483 Deleting in arrays, 485 list elements, 465, 467 objects in container classes, 765 in sequences, 764, 765 depAcc class read() and write() methods of, 648, 649 deque container class, 755, 765 constructors of, 757 Derived classes, 501, 505 constructing/destroying, 510, 511 defining, 502 members of, 504 standard assignment of, 573 Derived class object assignment, 533 DerivedE1 class, 575 defining, 574 Derived type, 323 Destructors, 251, 465, 483, 655 calling, 271, 549 declaring, 271 default, 271 defined, 271 with inline definitions, 273 in Matrix class, 695 sample program, 270. See also Constructors Direct base class, 503 Direct derivation, 502 displayError() function, 365 display() function, 227 display() method, 247, 253, 509 calling, 546, 547 new version of, 508 Division, 82 Dot operators, 253 Double ended queue, 753 Double quotes and header files, 47 string constant within, 25 double type, 21, 25 do-while loop, 97 syntax for, 103 do-while statement structogram for, 102 Downcasting, 536, 537 safety issues in, 537, 553 draw() method and Bitmap container class, 775 and Bresenham algorithm, 777 Dynamically allocated objects destroying, 548, 549 Dynamic arrays, 461 Dynamic binding, 551 Dynamic casting, 537 dynamic_cast operator, 553 Dynamic casts using, 552 Dynamic data structures, 463 Dynamic matrices, 694, 695 Dynamic members, 477-498 classes with, 480 description of, 479 objects created with, 480 of varying length, 478 Dynamic memory allocation, 453-475 for containers, 751 Dynamic storage allocation for arrays, 460, 461 for classes, 458 E Early binding, 551 Elementary operations, 463 Element functions for output in fields, 66 else branch, 105, 107 Else-if chains structogram for, 106 switch statement contrasted with, 111 Embedded keys, 769 Employee class, 570 assignment for, 572, 573 Empty lists, 465, 577 empty() method, 771 and container classes, 763 Empty statements, 99 Empty strings, 25 Encapsulation, 3, 245, 257 of arrays, 333 and static data members, 307 INDEX ■ 809 end() method, 755 and associative container classes, 769 endl manipulator, 9, 61 Enumeration definition, 309 sample program, 308 enum keyword, 309 eof bit, 387 Equals sign and initialization, 33 erase() method, 161, 771 for deleting objects in container classes, 765 errno.h header file, 48 Error classes defining, 618, 619 Error condition backing out of, 615 Error handling, 387 and exception hierarchies, 619 for new handler, 457 traditional, 608, 609 Errors avoiding, 723 common causes of, 609 input, 73 messages, 7, 43 parity bit computation and recognition of, 713 runtime, 267 templates checked for, 727 Escape sequences, 26, 28, 29, 123 decimal values and effects, 28 Euro class, 416, 417, 418 converting constructors of, 442 converting function for, 444 explicit type conversion for, 446 expressions valid for operators in, 419 with friend functions, 422 new, 420 testing conversions of, 444 Exception classes, 611 defining, 646 standard, 620, 621 Exception class members, 619 Exception declaration, 613 Exception handlers, 612, 613 searching for, 615 Exception handling, 3, 607-635 concept behind, 611 description of, 613 for files, 646 implementing own, 647 nesting, 616-617 Exception hierarchies, 619 Exceptions, 165 catching, 614 re-throwing, 617 throwing, 611, 614, 651 exceptions() method, 647 Exception specification list, 617 exchange() template function, 727 Executable file, 7 Exit code, 9 exit() function, 389 exp() function, 40 Explicit cast constructions, 537 Explicit initialization, 329 of objects, 459 Explicit inline methods, 273 Explicit instantiation of templates, 736, 737 syntax for, 737 Explicit type conversion, 147, 443, 536, 537 for Euro class, 446 testing, 446 explicit keyword, 447 Exponential notation, 25, 65 Expressions, 83 evaluating, 97 with reference type, 228, 229 in switch statement, 111 Extended codes, 687 External functions, 207 External static object, 203 extern storage class, 200, 201, 207 extern “c”, 795 F failbit state flag, of ios base class, 387 fail() method, 387 false keyword, 23 Fibonacci numbers, 325 Fibonacci quotients, 325 810 ■ I N D E X Fields input, 71 output, 66 Field width defining, 63 specifying, 67 File access mode, 385 stream classes for, 382 File management and file buffer, 381 File operations, 380, 381 Files, 381 buffers, 381 closing, 388, 389 default settings for opening, 386 determining positions in, 643 error handling when opening, 387 exception handling for, 646 extensions, 7 names, 385 opening/closing, 383, 385, 387, 638 open mode of, 386 positioning for random access, 640, 641, 642, 643. See also Header files; Records File scope object defined with, 199 File state, 644, 645 File stream classes, 382, 383 functionality of, 383 in iostream library, 383 File streams, 383 definition, 385 sample program/creating, 384 Fill-characters specifying for field, 67 fill() method, 67 Filter programs using, 131 Filters, 131 find() method, 163 and maps/multimaps, 773 fixed manipulator, 65 Fixed point output, 65 Flags, 60 for open mode of file, 386 open mode, 387 positioning, 641 state, 645, 647 FloatArr class, 740 constructors in, 483 copy constructor for, 486, 487 data members of, 478 new declarations in, 488 new methods of, 490, 491 prototype of operator function for, 489 versions of, 479, 480, 481, 484, 485 Floating-point constants, 25 examples for, 24 Floating-point division, 413 Floating-point numbers, 17, 21, 25 formatted output of, 64 inputting, 73 Floating-point types, 20, 21 conversion of, to integral type, 145 conversion of, to larger floating-point type, 143 conversion of, to smaller type, 145 Floating-point values types for, 16 float type, 21, 25, 331 for loops syntax for, 99 Formatting, 61 options, 63 standard settings, 65 Formatting flags, 61 Formatting operator, 63, 67 for statement, 97 sample program, 100 structogram for, 98 Fraction class, 431 simplify() method of, 448 Fractions calculating with, 430 Friend classes, 424, 425 declaring, 425 using, 425 Friend declaration, 423 Friend functions, 422, 423 declaring, 423 overloading operators with, 423 using, 425 INDEX ■ 811 friend keyword, 423 front() method, 761 and container classes vector, deque, and list, 761 fstream class, 383, 387 Function blocks, 175 Function call operator, 420 Function calls defined, 43 implicit type conversions in, 147, 531 sample program, 42 Function prototype, 11, 41 example of, 40 Functions, 171-195 C++ program with, 10 calling and called, 178 conversion of, 443 declaring, 40-41, 175, 177 default arguments defined for, 182, 183 defining, 174 error checking after leaving, 608 external, 207 general form of, 174, 175 hash, 658 inline, 180, 181 libraries, 173 and macros, 125 operator, 414, 415, 416 overloading, 184, 185 and passing by value, 179 pointers to, 688, 689 pointer versions of, 358, 359 recursive, 186, 187 return value of, 176 sample, 205 scheme of, with varying arguments, 684 signatures, 185 significance of, in C++, 172 static, 207 virtual operator, 573 without arguments, 45 without return value, 45 Function templates, 723 ANSI instantiation of, 737 defining, 725 explicit instantiation of, 737 passing arguments to, 730, 731 Fundamental types, 16, 17, 18, 20 example with, 303 operators for, 82-90 G get() function, 75 getch() function, 132, 687 getline() function, 51, 155 getline() method, 75, 391 get() method, 75, 391 getPassword() function, 203, 207 get pointer, 643 getput() function, 187 get/put pointer, 639 getTypeid() method, 651 Global arrays, 325 Global functions, 9, 51 from C++ standard library, 173 methods versus, 283 programming, 175 Global objects, 199 defining, 201 using, 201 Global operator functions, 420, 421 defining, 421 Global variables, 33, 34 goto statement, 113 Graphical user interfaces, 7, 173 H “Has-A” relationship, 299 Hash files, 658-659 Hash function, 658 Hashing, 325 Hash key, 658 Hash tables, 641 has relationship, 501 Header files, 7, 9, 41, 249 and associative containers, 768 and macros, 125 multiple inclusions of, 126 searching for, 47 and sequences, 752 standard, 48 standard class definitions in, 47 using, 46, 47 812 ■ I N D E X Heap, 454, 455, 769 Hexadecimal constant, 23 Hexadecimals displaying, 63 outputting, 63 hex manipulator, 63, 73 Hot potato algorithm, 778, 779 I Identical types, 323 Identifiers, 31 declaring, 41 read-only, 223 IEEE. See Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engi- neers #ifdef directive, 127 if-else statement structogram for, 104 syntax for, 105 #ifndef directive, 127 if statements variables defined in, 105 ifstream class, 383 Implicit conversion, 531 example for, 530 Implicit inline methods, 273 Implicit instantiation, 737 of template class, 727 Implicit type conversions, 140, 141, 441, 443 in assignments, 144 avoiding, 447 to base class type, 531 in function calls, 147 #include directive, 47 Include files, 7 include folder, 47 income() method, 567, 569 in constant, 309 Increment operator, 85 and bidirectional iterators, 755 Indefinite recursion, 509 Indentation, 11 Index entries, 643 representing, 642 IndexEntry class, 642, 643 Indexes, 165, 323, 643, 653, 655 access via, 761 for array elements, 323 and bit manipulation, 777 invalid, 165 representing, 644 Index file, 653 implementing, 654, 655 IndexFile class, 656 constructor of, 644 defined, 644, 645 insert() method of, 652, 653 IndexFileSystem class insert() and retrieve() methods of, 654, 655 Index versions of functions, 358, 359 Indirect base class, 503 Indirect derivation, 502 Indirection operator, 232, 233, 355 Infinite loops, 101 Inheritance, 3, 59, 499-528 data abstraction and reusability, 501 derived classes, 502 is relation, 500, 501 member access, 506-507 protected members, 514, 515 redefining members, 508, 509. See also Multiple inheritance Inheritance graph building, 594, 595 InhomList class complete, 578 defining, 576, 577 Inhomogeneous lists application with, 574 implementing, 576 terminology for, 575 init() call, 253 Initialization, 33 and constructor calls, 595 of constructors, 269 explicit, 329 of member objects, 301 of objects, 251, 279, 455 references, 223 for virtual base classes, 596, 597 INDEX ■ 813 Initialization list, 325, 329 and arrays of pointers, 365 init() method, 247, 267 Inline functions, 125, 180, 181 definition of, 181 global, 273 and macros, 181, 183 inline keyword, 181 Inline methods, 272, 273 Input errors, 73 fields, 71 formatted, 70 formatted, for numbers, 72 redirecting standard, 130, 131 stream classes for, 58 streams, 9 input() function, 686, 687 insertAfter() method, 577 Insertion methods in sequences, 758 in vector, deque, and list container classes, 759 Insertion sort algorithm, 738 insert() method, 161, 485, 771 of class IndexFile, 652, 653 of class IndexFileSystem, 654, 655 and maps/multimaps, 773 of SortVec derived container class, 758 Instances, class, 51, 251 Instantiation and template definition, 723 of template functions, 733 of templates, 726, 727 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 20 Integer promotions, 140, 141 Integers, 17 computing parity of, 712 formatted output of, 62 inputting, 73 types for, 16 Integer types, 21 Integral constants, 23 examples for, 22 Integral numbers displaying, 63 Integral promotion, 709 Integral types, 18, 19 conversion of, to floating-point type, 143 conversion of, to smaller type, 145 and operands for bitwise operators, 707 Integrated software development environment, 7 internal manipulator, 67 Internal static object, 203 International Organization for Standardization, 3 Interpolation search, 738 INT_MAX, 19 INT_MIN, 19 int type, 19, 23 Invalid indexes, 427 invalid_argument class, 620 I/O (input/output) formatted/unformatted, 74, 75, 391 overloading shift operators for, 428 redirecting, 130, 131 iomanip header file, 48, 65, 66 ios baseclass flags defined in, 386 ios::boolalpha flag, 69 ios class, 59 ios::seekdir type positioning flags, 641 iostream class, 59 iostream header file, 9 iostream library, 59 file stream classes in, 383 isLess() method, 282 islower(c) macro, 129 ISO. See International Organization for Standardiza- tion is_open() method, 389 is relationship, 500, 535, 589 istream class, 47, 59, 61 Iterating lists, 754 Iterator classes, 755 Iterators, 754 types of, 755 J Jump table, 688, 689 K kbhit() function, 132 814 ■ I N D E X Keys and adapter classes, 753 and associative containers, 751 hash, 658 representing pairs of, 773 and sets and multisets, 771 unique and ambiguous, 769 Keyword, 29 L Labels and goto statement, 113 Laborer class, 568 standard assignment for, 573 Layout and program flow, 107 of source files, 11 Left shift operators, 708, 709 left manipulator, 66 Legibility, 11 Length, of container, 763 length_error(*) class, 620 length() method, 51, 481 Less-than symbols, 9 Libraries functions in, 173 Lifetime object, 199 static, 203 LIFO (last-in-first-out) principle, 179, 725, 751 Lights class, 309 limits header file, 48 Linear solution, 658 Line feed, 187 line() function, 11 Linked lists, 462, 463 advantages with, 463 defining, 463 representing, 464 Linker, 7 List class class definition for, 464, 465 new methods of, 490, 491 list container class, 767 constructors of, 757 methods for deleting objects in, 765 List elements appending/deleting, 462, 465, 467 inserting in middle of inhomogeneous list, 576 inserting new, 577 representing, 465, 575 List operations sample program, 766 Lists representing, 465 sorting, inverting, and splicing, 767 Literals, 23 Local objects, 179, 199 Local variables, 33, 34 LOCATE macro, 123 Logarithmic runtimes, 769 Logical bitwise operators, 707 Logical expressions examples for, 90 Logical operators, 90, 141, 412 Logical shifts, 709 logic_error exception classes derived from, 620, 621 long double type, 21, 25 long type, 19 Loop body, 97 Loops, 97 l-value, 233, 421 M Macro definition visibility for, 125 Macros calling with arguments, 123 and case conversion, 129 for character manipulation/classification, 128 defining, 121 in different source files, 124 within header files, 47 and inline functions, 181, 183 redefining, 127 sample program, 120 for screen control, 123, 125 Macros with parameters sample program, 122 main() function, 9, 11, 173, 175 parameters of, 367 structure of, 8 MAKE utility, for module management, 173 INDEX ■ 815 Manipulators, 61 calling, 60 floating-point numbers formatting, 64 and integers formatting, 62 for output in fields, 66 Maps and associative containers, 751 representing, 769 using, 773 Masks, bit, 710, 711 Mathematical rules and expressions, 83 Mathematical standard functions, 40 MathError exception class, 619 math.h header file, 190 Matrix, 331 Matrix class, 695 constructor, destructor, and subscript operator for, 695 Member arrays, 332 Member functions, 9, 51, 245 Member initializers, 300, 301 Member objects, 298, 299 constant, 302, 303 initializing, 301 Members, 247 redefining, 508, 509 Member sub-object, 299 Memory allocating, 249 objects in, 251 releasing, 459 union and usage of, 259 Memory address for object of class, 255 merge() method for merging list containers, 767 of SortVec container class, 762 message() function, 227 Methods, 51, 245 calling, 51 of class template, 725 const and non-const versions of, 277, 279 and data members, 505 defining, 248, 249 global functions versus, 283 name lookup for, 507 operator functions as, 415 operators overloadable by, 420 positioning, 643 pure virtual, 566, 567 standard, 278, 279 min() function template, 732 MIN macro, 127 Modifiers signed and unsigned, 19 Modular programming, 7, 249 Modules, 7, 173, 199 MotorHome multiply-derived class, 588, 589, 598 move() method and BitmapN container class, 775 Multidimensional arrays defining, 331 as parameters, 359 sample program, 330 Multimaps, 769 using, 772, 773 Multiple assignments, 87 Multiple indirect base classes, 590, 591 Multiple inheritance, 587-606 constructor calls, 594 initializing virtual base classes, 596 multiple identical base classes, 591 multiple indirect base classes, 590 multiply-derived classes, 588, 589 virtual base classes, 592 Multiple template parameters, 729 Multiply-derived classes, 588, 589 multiset container class, 771 Multisets, 769 declaring, 771 sample, 770 N Names and naming arrays, 351 bit-fields, 715 constructors, 267 declaring, 41 file, 385 macros, 121 operator functions, 415 816 ■ I N D E X source file, 7 valid, 31 of variables, 31 namespace keyword, 209 Namespaces defining, 208, 209 n-dimensional array, 331 Negation, 417 Negative numbers converting, 142 outputting as decimals, 63 Nested if-else statements, 105 Nested namespaces, 209 Nesting exception handling, 616, 617 Nesting loops, 103 new handler, 457 New-line characters, 11, 51 new operator, 454 calling for fundamental types, 455 calling with default constructor, 459 new[] operator, 461 noboolalpha manipulator, 69 Nongraphic characters, 28 noshowpoint(*), 64 noshowpos(*) manipulator, 60 NOT operator, 91 nouppercase manipulator, 63 NULL, 365, 465, 577 Null character, 25, 26, 327 NULL pointer, 333, 363, 457 Numbers formatted input of, 72 Number symbol (#), 9, 11 Numerical constants, 23 Numeric operations exception handling for, 618, 619 numeric_limits, 786 O Object-oriented programming, 3, 4, 5, 245 Object persistence, 392, 393 Objects, 5, 33 accessing, 281, 760, 761 as arguments, 235 assigning, 253 cleaning up, 271 creating/destroying, 51, 482, 483, 511 creating with dynamic members, 480 declaring, 513 defining, 250, 251 of derived classes, 512 explicit initialization of, 459 initializing, 251, 455 lifetime of, 199 local, 179 member, 298 in memory, 251 passing as arguments, 282 passing by reference, 283 passing by value, 283 pointers to, 254, 255 references returned to, 285 representing pairs of, 773 returning, 284, 285 static, 203 storage classes of, 198 storing, 393 of union WordByte in memory, 258 using, 252. See also Classes; References Obligatory arguments, 685 Octal constant, 23 Octal numbers outputting, 63 oct manipulator, 63, 73 OFF constant, 309 ofstream class, 383 ON constant, 309 OOP. See Object-oriented programming open() method, 386, 387 Open mode flags, 387 Open modes, of file, 386 Operands and order of evaluation, 91 symmetry of, 419 Operations file, 380, 381 for sequences, 752 Operator functions, 414, 415, 416 calling, 415, 419 declaration of, 428 defining global, 421 definition of, 428 INDEX ■ 817 Operator functions (continued) global or method, 421 as methods, 415 naming, 415 negation, addition, and subtraction, 417 operator keyword, 415, 445 Operators bitwise, 706, 707 for classes, 413 and complex declarations, 691 dot, 253 indirection, 232 overloadable, 412 overloading, 413 with pointer variables, 355 reference type, 229 in template functions, 733 unary, 233 Operators for fundamental types binary arithmetic operators, 82-83 increment/decrement operators, 85 logical operators, 90 relational operators, 88, 89 sign operators, 85 unary arithmetic operators, 84 Optional arguments, 685, 687 OR operator, 91 ostream class, 47, 59, 61 out constant, 309 out_of_range(*), 620 Output redirecting standard, 130, 131 stream classes for, 58 streams, 9 overflow_error(*) class, 620 Overloaded operators rules for, 412 using, 418, 419 Overloading assignment operator, 489 functions, 184, 185 operators, 413, 423 and redefinition, 509 shift operators for I/O, 428, 429 subscript operators, 426, 427, 485 P Parameters, 175 declaring, 357 multidimensional arrays as, 359 pointers as, 234 read-only pointers as, 361 Parentheses in syntax description, 33 Parity bit computation, 713 parity() function, 713 PassCar versions of, 510, 511 PassCar class virtual method table for, 550 PassCar derived class, 504 Passing arguments to function templates, 730, 731 Passing by reference, 179, 225, 283 Passing by value, 179, 225, 283 Persistence object, 392, 393 of polymorphic objects, 648, 650 Pixels (picture element), 775 Pointer arithmetic, 354, 355 Pointer arrays generating dynamically, 683 Pointer assignment effect of, 534 Pointers, 233, 285, 729, 755 to abstract classes, 570, 571 as arguments, 235 array elements interrelated with, 352 arrays of, 364 comparing, 355 to const objects, 361 defining, 230 defining arrays of, 365 to functions, 688, 689 moving in array, 355 NULL, 333 to objects, 254, 255 as parameters, 234 parameters declared as, 357 read-only, 360 returning, 362, 363 818 ■ I N D E X sample program, 350, 352 subtracting, 355 typeless, 351 use of, instead of indices, 359 Pointers to pointers, 682, 683 Pointer types, 231 Pointer variables, 231, 235, 683 addressing with, 353 and arrays, 351 Polymorphic interfaces, 571 Polymorphic objects persistence of, 648, 650 storing, 649 Polymorphism, 3, 543-564 concept of, 544, 545 destroying dynamically allocated objects, 548, 549 dynamic casts, 552, 553 virtual methods, 546, 547 virtual method table, 550, 551 pop_back() method for deleting objects in container classes, 765 popFront() method, 465, 467 pop() method, 765 Positioning flags, 641 Positioning methods, 643 Positive numbers converting to, 142 Postfix increment, 430 Postfix notation, 85 effects of, 84 Precedence of arithmetic operators, 84 and arithmetic type conversions, 707 of Boolean operators, 91 for cast operator (type), 147 for comma operator, 101 for indirection operator, 233 operator, 85 for operators with pointer variables, 355 of relational operators, 88, 89 precision() method, 65 Prefixes, 31 Prefix increment, 430 Prefix notation, 85 effects of, 84 Preprocessor, 9 Preprocessor directives, 11 Primary file, within index file, 653, 655 printf() function, 685 Priority queues, 753 testing, 764 priority_queue template, 753 Private data members accessing, 275 Private members, 245, 247, 249, 503, 507 Procedures, 5 Program scope object defined with, 199 Projects, 249 Properties, 5 protected constructors, 569 Protected declarations, 515 Protected members, 515 Prototype, 175, 177 public base classes is relationship established by, 589 Public interface, of class, 247 Public members, 245, 247 access to, in base class, 503 Public methods, 51 Pure virtual methods, 566, 567 pushBack() method, 465, 467 push_back() method, 759 push_front() method, 759 push() method, 759 put() method, 75, 391 Q qsort() function, 689, 696, 697 QuadMatrix template, 734, 735 Quadratic matrices class template representing, 734, 735 Queues as sequential containers, 751 Quick sort algorithm, 187, 689 Quotient of Fibonacci number, 325 R rand(), 45 INDEX ■ 819 Random access iterators, 755 Random file access, 381, 639 positioning for, 640, 641, 642, 643 Random number generator initializing, 44, 45 Random positioning statements, 643 Random read and write access, 639 Range checking, 427 Range operator, 305 base class method accessed by, 509 range_error class, 620 Raster images representing with bitmaps, 774, 775 rdstate() method, 645 Readability and complex expressions, 109 and empty statements, 99 and loop body, 97 and macros, 121 and typedef, 693 Read access open mode for, 638 read_at() method, 642 Reading blocks of records, 390 characters, 75 records, 381 read() method of classes DepAcc and SavAcc, 648, 649 implementing, 392, 393 Read-only methods, 277 Read-only pointers, 360 for non-constant objects, 361 Read-only references, 223, 225 Records, 257 inserting and retrieving, 655 position of, in files, 643 reading, 381 reading/writing blocks, 390 Recursive data structures, 465 Recursive functions, 186, 187 Redefined methods calling, 513 Redefinition, 509 References, 3, 729 to abstract classes, 570, 571 conversions in, to base classes, 535 defining, 222 as parameters, 224 and pointers, 231 read-only, 223, 225 returning, 285 as return value, 226, 227 sample program, 222 Reference type function calling, 227 register keyword, 205 Registers CPU, 205 Register variables, 205 sample function with, 204 Relational operators, 50, 412 precedence of, 88, 89 remove() method, 481, 485 replace() method, 163 reset() method and manipulating bits, 777 Resistant mistakes program with, 76 resize() method and container classes, 763 Result class, 303, 424, 425 constructors for, 298, 299 new version of, 302 with static members, 304 with static methods, 306 retrieve() method, 651 of IndexFileSystem class, 654, 655 Return address, 181 return statement, 9, 177 Return values, 41, 285 Reusability, 5, 501 reverse() function, 357 reverse() method, 767 rfind() method, 163 Right shift operators, 708, 709 Round brackets, 33 Routers, 779 820 ■ I N D E X Row class defining, 694, 695 RTTI. See Run Time Type Information Runtime behavior of container classes, 759 runtime_error, 621 Run time errors, 621 avoiding, 43, 267 exception classes derived from, 620, 621 Run Time Type Information, 552 R-values, 233 S Safe class, 514, 515 SavAcc class defining, 648, 649 scientific manipulator, 65 Scope, 199 Scope resolution operator, 209, 211, 249 Screen control macros, 123, 125 Scrolling string output, 334 search() method, 655 seekg() method, 641 seekp() method, 641 SelectionSort() function, 697 Semicolon, 9, 103 Sequences and header files, 752 operations for, 752 representing, 753 Sequential containers (or sequences), 750, 751 Sequential file access, 381 set container class, 771 setfill() manipulator, 66 setfill() method, 67 setf() method, 60, 61, 69 set() method, 777 setprecision() manipulator, 65 Sets associative containers within, 751 declaring, 771 representing, 769 sample, 770 setTime() method, 282 setw() manipulator, 66 Shape type, 309 Sheltered members access to, 515 Shift operators, 708 short type, 19 showpos manipulator calling, 60 Side effects avoiding, 87 of macros, 125 Sieve of Eratosthenes, 334 signal.h header file, 48 Signatures constructor, 267, 269 function, 185 signed char type, 19, 142 Signed integers converting, 142 signed keyword, 19 Signed type conversion of, to larger integral type, 143 Sign extension, 143 Sign operators, 85 Simple assignments, 87 Single characters meaning of, 26 Single quotes character constants within, 25 size() method and length of container, 763 and maps/multimaps, 773 and number of objects in container, 771 sizeof operator, 21 sort() method list container sorted by call to, 767 SortVec container class merge() method of, 762 search() method of, 760 using, 756 Source code, 7 Source files, 7, 249 layout of, 11 name, 7 INDEX ■ 821 Spaces, 11 Special characters, 28 Special objects, of base class, 531 splice() function, 466, 467 Splice operations, 767 sqrt() function, 40, 53 srand() function, 45 sstream class, 48 Stack class template, 724 explicit instantiation for, 737 with two template parameters, 728 Stack content after calling function, 178 Stacks, 179 fixed/varying arguments on, 684 and recursive functions, 187 as sequential containers, 751 testing, 726 Standard copy constructor, 487 Standard exception classes hierarchy of, 621 using, 620 Standard exception handling for streams, 647 Standard input, 59 Standard methods, 279 sample program, 278 Standard output, 59 Standard settings, 65 Star character, 233 State flags, 645, 647 Statements, 9 Static arrays, 325 Static binding, 551 Static data members, 304, 305 accessing, 306 declaring, 305 definition and initialization, 305 and encapsulation, 307 Static data structures, 463 Static functions, 207 static keyword, 305 static_cast, 537 Static lifetime, 199, 203 Static member functions, 307 Static objects, 203 static storage class, 202, 203, 207 std standard namespace, 9, 209 Storage classes, 199 of functions, 206 Storage class specifiers, 198 strcat() function and return pointers, 363 strcmp() function, 327 index version of, 368 strcpy() function, 327 pointer versions of, 358 and return pointers, 363 Stream access errors, 651 Stream class shift operators, 229 streambuf class, 48 Streams, 9 discovering/changing status of, 645 standard, 59 standard exception handling for, 647 String assignments, 155, 157 string class, 153, 251, 413 C strings and, 327 defining, 155 objects of, 51 sample assignments of, 228 sample program, 50, 154 String constants, 23, 25 String literal internal representation of, 24 Strings characters accessed in, 164 comparing, 158 concatenating, 156, 157 escape sequences used in, 29 initializing, 154, 155 inserting and erasing in, 160, 161 numbers converted to, 288 output of, 68, 69 searching and replacing in, 162, 163 stringstream class, 288 strlen() function, 327, 359 Stroustrup, Bjarne, 3 strstr() function sample program, 362, 363 struct keyword, 257 structs sample program, 256 822 ■ I N D E X Style, 11 Sub-object lattice, 595 Subroutines, 5, 181 Subscript, 323 Subscript operators, 165, 427 and access via indices, 761 bits referenced by, 777 in Matrix class, 695 overloading, 426, 427 read and write access using, 485 Substrings erasing, 160 replacing, 162 Subtraction, 355, 417 swap() implementing as method, 282 swap() function, 235 Swapping, 455 switch statement, 111 else-if chains contrasted with, 111 structogram for, 110 Symbolic constants, 121 sync() method, 70 Syntax, 249 brackets in descriptions, 612 for defining variables, 33 errors, 7 T Tabs, 11 tan() function, 40 tellg() method, 641 TelList class, 332, 333 methods implemented for, 336, 337 tellp() method, 641 Template arguments restrictions on, 731 Template function definition, 733 Template functions motivation for, 733 Template parameters multiple, 729 restrictions on, 729 Templates, 3, 721-748 advantages of, 723 arguments, 730, 731 in C++ standard library, 723 default arguments of, 734, 735 defining, 724, 725 defining with multiple parameters, 729 function and class, 723 instantiating, 726, 727, 736, 737 parameters, 728, 729 specialization, 732-733 terminate() function, 613 Testing characters, 129 Text mode, 386 and nesting loops, 103 Text editor, 7 this pointer sample class DayTime, 280 using, 281 Throwing exceptions, 614 throw statement, 611 using, 610 timediff() function, 207 time() function, 167 time_t type, 261 tm struct, 260 Tokens, 11 Tone and nesting loops, 103 top() method, 761 toupper() macro, 129 Traditional procedural programming, 4, 5 Translation unit, 199 true keyword, 23 trunc open mode, 386 Truth table for logical operators, 90 try block, 615 nested, 616, 617 syntax of, 612, 613 Two-dimensional arrays initialization list of, 331 parameter declaration for, 359 Type casting, 351 Type conversion for classes, 441-452 ambiguities of type conversions, 446-447 conversion constructors, 442-443 conversion functions, 444-445 INDEX ■ 823 Type conversions, 43, 146 ambiguities of, 446, 447 in assignments, 145, 532, 533 explicit, 147, 536, 537 failure, 447 implicit, 140, 144, 147, 531 standard, 445 usual arithmetic, 141, 142 typedef keyword, 693 Type hierarchy, 140 Typeless pointers, 351 Typenames defining, 692 Types, 611 platform dependent, 693 pointer, 231 U Unary arithmetic operators, 84, 85 Unary operators, 83, 233 underflow_error class, 620 #undef directive, 127 Underscores and internal names, 31 Unicode, 17 Union, 258, 259 defined, 259 Unique keys, 769 usetf() method, 60, 61 unsigned char type, 19 unsigned keyword, 19 unsigned short, 19 Unsigned types, 143 Unsigned value, 45 Unwinding the stack, 615 Upcasting, 536, 537, 553 User Network Interface, 715 using declaration, 211 using directive, 211 using keyword, 9, 49, 210 Usual arithmetic type conversions, 141, 145 performing, 142 V va_arg() macro arguments of, 687 valarray class, 48 Variables defining, 33 defining in if statements, 105 names of, 31 pointer, 683 sample program, 32 Variable type, 77 Vector, 323 vector container class, 755 constructors of, 757 methods for deleting objects in, 765 Vectors iterating, 754 Virtual assignments using, 573 Virtual base classes, 592, 593 constructor calls in, 597 initializing, 596, 597 Virtual destructors declaring, 549 virtual keyword, 593 Virtual methods, 546, 547 calling, 544, 545 declaring, 547 pure, 566, 567 redefining, 547 Virtual method tables, 550, 551 Virtual operator functions, 573 VMT. See Virtual method tables void type, 21 for functions, 44, 45 void* type pointer, 351 volatile keyword, 34, 36 W Warnings, 7 wchar_t type, 17, 19 what() method, 621 824 ■ I N D E X what() virtual method, 647 while statement structogram for, 96 structogram for break within, 112 syntax for, 97 Whitespace characters, 11 Width bit-fields, 715 width() method, 67, 491 Wordbyte union defining/using, 258 Write access open mode for, 638 write_at() method, 642 WriteError type exception, 651 write() method, 391, 392, 393 of classes DepAcc and SavAcc, 648, 649 Write operation, 381 Writing blocks of records, 390 characters, 75 X XOR operator, 707 Z Zero extension, 143 INDEX ■ 825