Kĩ thuật lập trình - Chapter 26: Process improvement

Chapter 26 – Process improvementLecture 11Chapter 26 Process improvementTopics coveredThe process improvement processProcess measurementProcess analysis Process changeThe CMMI process improvement framework 2Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess improvementMany software companies have turned to software process improvement as a way of enhancing the quality of their software, reducing costs or accelerating their development processes. Process improvement means understanding existing processes and changing these processes to increase product quality and/or reduce costs and development time. 3Chapter 26 Process improvementApproaches to improvementThe process maturity approach, which focuses on improving process and project management and introducing good software engineering practice. The level of process maturity reflects the extent to which good technical and management practice has been adopted in organizational software development processes. The agile approach, which focuses on iterative development and the reduction of overheads in the software process. The primary characteristics of agile methods are rapid delivery of functionality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements.4Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess and product qualityProcess quality and product quality are closely related and process improvement benefits arise because the quality of the product depends on its development process.A good process is usually required to produce a good product.For manufactured goods, process is the principal quality determinant.For design-based activities, other factors are also involved, especially the capabilities of the designers.5Chapter 26 Process improvementFactors affecting software product quality6Chapter 26 Process improvementQuality factorsFor large projects with ‘average’ capabilities, the development process determines product quality.For small projects, the capabilities of the developers is the main determinant.The development technology is particularly significant for small projects.In all cases, if an unrealistic schedule is imposed then product quality will suffer.7Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess improvement processThere is no such thing as an ‘ideal’ or ‘standard’ software process that is applicable in all organizations or for all software products of a particular type.You will rarely be successful in introducing process improvements if you simply attempt to change the process to one that is used elsewhere. You must always consider the local environment and culture and how this may be affected by process change proposals. Each company has to develop its own process depending on its size, the background and skills of its staff, the type of software being developed, customer and market requirements, and the company culture.8Chapter 26 Process improvementImprovement attributesYou also have to consider what aspects of the process that you want to improve. Your goal might be to improve software quality and so you may wish to introduce new process activities that change the way software is developed and tested. You may be interested in improving some attribute of the process itself (such as development time) and you have to decide which process attributes are the most important to your company. 9Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess attributes Process characteristicKey issuesUnderstandability To what extent is the process explicitly defined and how easy is it to understand the process definition?StandardizationTo what extent is the process based on a standard generic process? This may be important for some customers who require conformance with a set of defined process standards. To what extent is the same process used in all parts of a company?Visibility Do the process activities culminate in clear results, so that the progress of the process is externally visible?MeasurabilityDoes the process include data collection or other activities that allow process or product characteristics to be measured?SupportabilityTo what extent can software tools be used to support the process activities?10Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess attributes Process characteristicKey issuesAcceptability Is the defined process acceptable to and usable by the engineers responsible for producing the software product?Reliability Is the process designed in such a way that process errors are avoided or trapped before they result in product errors?RobustnessCan the process continue in spite of unexpected problems?Maintainability Can the process evolve to reflect changing organizational requirements or identified process improvements?Rapidity How fast can the process of delivering a system from a given specification be completed?11Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess improvement stagesProcess measurementAttributes of the current process are measured. These are a baseline for assessing improvements.Process analysisThe current process is assessed and bottlenecks and weaknesses are identified.Process changeChanges to the process that have been identified during the analysis are introduced.12Chapter 26 Process improvementThe process improvement cycle 13Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess measurementWherever possible, quantitative process data should be collectedHowever, where organisations do not have clearly defined process standards this is very difficult as you don’t know what to measure. A process may have to be defined before any measurement is possible.Process measurements should be used to assess process improvementsBut this does not mean that measurements should drive the improvements. The improvement driver should be the organizational objectives.14Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess metricsTime taken for process activities to be completedE.g. Calendar time or effort to complete an activity or process.Resources required for processes or activitiesE.g. Total effort in person-days.Number of occurrences of a particular eventE.g. Number of defects discovered.15Chapter 26 Process improvementGoal-Question-Metric ParadigmGoalsWhat is the organisation trying to achieve? The objective of process improvement is to satisfy these goals.QuestionsQuestions about areas of uncertainty related to the goals. You need process knowledge to derive these.MetricsMeasurements to be collected to answer the questions.16Chapter 26 Process improvementGQM questionsThe GQM paradigm is used in process improvement to help answer three critical questions:Why are we introducing process improvement?What information do we need to help identify and assess improvements?What process and product measurements are required to provide this information?17Chapter 26 Process improvementThe GQM paradigm 18Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess analysisThe study of existing processes to understand the relationships between parts of the process and to compare them with other processes.Process analysis and process measurement are intertwined. You need to carry out some analysis to know what to measure, and, when making measurements, you inevitably develop a deeper understanding of the process being measured.19Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess analysis objectivesTo understand the activities involved in the process and the relationships between these activities.To understand the relationships between the process activities and the measurements that have been made.To relate the specific process or processes that you are analyzing to comparable processes elsewhere in the organization, or to idealized processes of the same type.20Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess analysis techniquesPublished process models and process standardsIt is always best to start process analysis with an existing model. People then may extend and change this.Questionnaires and interviewsMust be carefully designed. Participants may tell you what they think you want to hear.Ethnographic analysisInvolves assimilating process knowledge by observation. Best for in-depth analysis of process fragments rather than for whole-process understanding.21Chapter 26 Process improvementAspects of process analysis Process aspectQuestionsAdoption and standardizationIs the process documented and standardized across the organization? If not, does this mean that any measurements made are specific only to a single process instance? If processes are not standardized, then changes to one process may not be transferable to comparable processes elsewhere in the company.Software engineering practiceAre there known, good software engineering practices that are not included in the process? Why are they not included? Does the lack of these practices affect product characteristics, such as the number of defects in a delivered software system?Organizational constraintsWhat are the organizational constraints that affect the process design and the ways that the process is performed? For example, if the process involves dealing with classified material, there may be activities in the process to check that classified information is not included in any material due to be released to external organizations. Organizational constraints may mean that possible process changes cannot be made.22Chapter 26 Process improvementAspects of process analysis Process aspectQuestionsCommunicationsHow are communications managed in the process? How do communication issues relate to the process measurements that have been made? Communication problems are a major issue in many processes and communication bottlenecks are often the reasons for project delays. IntrospectionIs the process reflective (i.e., do the actors involved in the process explicitly think about and discuss the process and how it might be improved)? Are there mechanisms through which process actors can propose process improvements?LearningHow do people joining a development team learn about the software processes used? Does the company have process manuals and process training programs?Tool supportWhat aspects of the process are and aren’t supported by software tools? For unsupported areas, are there tools that could be deployed cost-effectively to provide support? For supported areas, are the tools effective and efficient? Are better tools available?23Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess modelsProcess models are a good way of focusing attention on the activities in a process and the information transfer between these activities. Process models do not have to be formal or complete – their purpose is to provoke discussion rather than document the process in detail. Model-oriented questions can be used to help understand the process e.g.What activities take place in practice but are not shown in the model? Are there process activities, shown in the model, that you (the process actor) think are inefficient? 24Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess exceptionsSoftware processes are complex and process models cannot effectively represent how to handle exceptions:Several key people becoming ill just before a critical review;A breach of security that means all external communications are out of action for several days;Organisational reorganisation;A need to respond to an unanticipated request for new proposals.Under these circumstances, the model is suspended and managers use their initiative to deal with the exception.25Chapter 26 Process improvementKey pointsThe goals of process improvement are higher product quality, reduced process costs and faster delivery of software.The principal approaches to process improvement are agile approaches, geared to reducing process overheads, and maturity-based approaches based on better process management and the use of good software engineering practice.The process improvement cycle involves process measurement, process analysis and modeling, and process change.Measurement should be used to answer specific questions about the software process used. These questions should be based on organizational improvement goals.26Chapter 26 Process improvementChapter 26 – Process improvementLecture 227Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess changeInvolves making modifications to existing processes.This may involve:Introducing new practices, methods or processes;Changing the ordering of process activities;Introducing or removing deliverables;Introducing new roles or responsibilities.Change should be driven by measurable goals.28Chapter 26 Process improvementThe process change process 29Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess change stagesImprovement identificationThis stage is concerned with using the results of the process analysis to identify ways to tackle quality problems, schedule bottlenecks or cost inefficiencies that have been identified during process analysis. Improvement prioritizationWhen many possible changes have been identified, it is usually impossible to introduce them all at once, and you must decide which are the most important. Process change introductionProcess change introduction means putting new procedures, methods and tools into place and integrating them with other process activities. 30Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess change stagesProcess change trainingWithout training, it is not possible to gain the full benefits of process changes. The engineers involved need to understand the changes that have been proposed and how to perform the new and changed processes. Change tuningProposed process changes will never be completely effective as soon as they are introduced. You need a tuning phase where minor problems can be discovered, and modifications to the process can be proposed and introduced. 31Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess change problemsResistance to change Team members or project managers may resist the introduction of process changes and propose reasons why changes will not work, or delay the introduction of changes. They may, in some cases, deliberately obstruct process changes and interpret data to show the ineffectiveness of proposed process change.Change persistence While it may be possible to introduce process changes initially, it is common for process innovations to be discarded after a short time and for the processes to revert to their previous state. 32Chapter 26 Process improvementResistance to changeProject managers often resist process change because any innovation has unknown risks associated with it. Project managers are judged according to whether or not their project produces software on time and to budget. They may prefer an inefficient but predictable process to an improved process that has organizational benefits, but which has short-term risks associated with it. Engineers may resist the introduction of new processes for similar reasons, or because they see these processes as threatening their professionalism. That is, they may feel that the new pre-defined process gives them less discretion and does not recognize the value of their skills and experience. 33Chapter 26 Process improvementChange persistenceThe problem of changes being introduced then subsequently discarded is a common one. Changes may be proposed by an ‘evangelist’ who believes strongly that the changes will lead to improvement. He or she may work hard to ensure the changes are effective and the new process is accepted. If the ‘evangelist’ leaves, then the people involved may therefore simply revert to the previous ways of doing things. Change institutionalization is importantThis means that process change is not dependent on individuals but that the changes become part of standard practice in the company, with company-wide support and training.34Chapter 26 Process improvementThe CMMI process improvement frameworkThe CMMI framework is the current stage of work on process assessment and improvement that started at the Software Engineering Institute in the 1980s.The SEI’s mission is to promote software technology transfer particularly to US defence contractors.It has had a profound influence on process improvementCapability Maturity Model introduced in the early 1990s.Revised maturity framework (CMMI) introduced in 2001.35Chapter 26 Process improvementThe SEI capability maturity modelInitialEssentially uncontrolledRepeatableProduct management procedures defined and usedDefinedProcess management procedures and strategies defined and usedManagedQuality management strategies defined and usedOptimisingProcess improvement strategies defined and usedChapter 26 Process improvement36Process capability assessmentIntended as a means to assess the extent to which an organisation’s processes follow best practice.By providing a means for assessment, it is possible to identify areas of weakness for process improvement.There have been various process assessment and improvement models but the SEI work has been most influential.37Chapter 26 Process improvementThe CMMI modelAn integrated capability model that includes software and systems engineering capability assessment.The model has two instantiationsStaged where the model is expressed in terms of capability levels;Continuous where a capability rating is computed.38Chapter 26 Process improvementCMMI model componentsProcess areas24 process areas that are relevant to process capability and improvement are identified. These are organised into 4 groups.GoalsGoals are descriptions of desirable organisational states. Each process area has associated goals.PracticesPractices are ways of achieving a goal - however, they are advisory and other approaches to achieve the goal may be used.39Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess areas in the CMMI CategoryProcess areaProcess managementOrganizational process definition (OPD)Organizational process focus (OPF)Organizational training (OT)Organizational process performance (OPP)Organizational innovation and deployment (OID)Project managementProject planning (PP)Project monitoring and control (PMC)Supplier agreement management (SAM)Integrated project management (IPM)Risk management (RSKM)Quantitative project management (QPM)40Chapter 26 Process improvementProcess areas in the CMMI CategoryProcess areaEngineeringRequirements management (REQM)Requirements development (RD)Technical solution (TS)Product integration (PI)Verification (VER)Validation (VAL)SupportConfiguration management (CM)Process and product quality management (PPQA)Measurement and analysis (MA)Decision analysis and resolution (DAR)Causal analysis and resolution (CAR)41Chapter 26 Process improvementGoals and associated practices in the CMMI GoalAssociated practicesThe requirements are analyzed and validated, and a definition of the required functionality is developed.Analyze derived requirements systematically to ensure that they are necessary and sufficient.Validate requirements to ensure that the resulting product will perform as intended in the user’s environment, using multiple techniques as appropriate.Root causes of defects and other problems are systematically determined.Select the critical defects and other problems for analysis.Perform causal analysis of selected defects and other problems and propose actions to address them.The process is institutionalized as a defined process.Establish and maintain an organizational policy for planning and performing the requirements development process.42Chapter 26 Process improvementExamples of goals in the CMMI GoalProcess areaCorrective actions are managed to closure when the project’s performance or results deviate significantly from the plan.Project monitoring and control (specific goal)Actual performance and progress of the project are monitored against the project plan.Project monitoring and control (specific goal)The requirements are analyzed and validated, and a definition of the required functionality is developed.Requirements development (specific goal)Root causes of defects and other problems are systematically determined.Causal analysis and resolution (specific goal)The process is institutionalized as a defined process.Generic goal43Chapter 26 Process improvementCMMI assessmentExamines the processes used in an organisation and assesses their maturity in each process area.Based on a 6-point scale:Not performed;Performed;Managed;Defined;Quantitatively managed;Optimizing.44Chapter 26 Process improvementThe staged CMMI modelComparable with the software CMM.Each maturity level has process areas and goals. For example, the process area associated with the managed level include:Requirements management;Project planning;Project monitoring and control;Supplier agreement management;Measurement and analysis;Process and product quality assurance.45Chapter 26 Process improvementThe CMMI staged maturity model 46Chapter 26 Process improvementInstitutional practicesInstitutions operating at the managed level should have institutionalised practices that are geared to standardisation.Establish and maintain policy for performing the project management process;Provide adequate resources for performing the project management process;Monitor and control the project planning process;Review the activities, status and results of the project planning process.47Chapter 26 Process improvementThe continuous CMMI modelThis is a finer-grain model that considers individual or groups of practices and assesses their use.The maturity assessment is not a single value but is a set of values showing the organisations maturity in each area.The CMMI rates each process area from levels 1 to 5.The advantage of a continuous approach is that organisations can pick and choose process areas to improve according to their local needs.48Chapter 26 Process improvementA process capability profile 49Chapter 26 Process improvementKey pointsThe CMMI process maturity model is an integrated process improvement model that supports both staged and continuous process improvement.Process improvement in the CMMI model is based on reaching a set of goals related to good software engineering practice and describing, standardizing and controlling the practices used to achieve these goals.The CMMI model includes recommended practices that may be used, but these are not obligatory.50Chapter 26 Process improvement