Late Pleistocene-Holocene sequence stratigraphy of the subaqueous Red River delta and the adjacent shelf

Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287, Doi: 10.15625/0866-7187/40/3/12618 271 (VAST) Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences Late Pleistocene-Holocene sequence stratigraphy of the subaqueous Red River delta and the adjacent shelf Nguyen Trung Thanh1, Paul Jing Liu2, Mai Duc Dong1, Dang Hoai Nhon4, Do Huy Cuong1, Bui Viet Dung3, Phung Van Phach1 , Tran Duc Thanh4, Duong Quoc Hung1, Ngo Thanh Nga5 1Institute of Marine Geology and Geophysics (VAST), Hanoi, Vietnam 2Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA 3Vietnam Petroleum Institute, 173-Trung Kinh, Hanoi, Vietnam 4Institute of Marine Environment and Resources (VAST), Hai Phong, Vietnam 5Institute of Geography (VAST), Hanoi, Vietnam Received 22 February 2018; Received in revised form 02 May 2018; Accepted 05 June 2018 ABSTRACT The model of Late Pleistocene-Holocene sequence stratigraphy of the subaqueous Red River delta and the adja- cent shelf is proposed by interpretation of high resolution seismic documents and comparison with previous research results on Holocene sedimentary evolution on the delta plain. Four units (U1, U2, U3, and U4) and four sequence stratigraphic surfaces (SB1, TS, TRS and MFS) were determined. The formation of these units and surfaces is related to the global sea-level change in Late Pleistocene-Holocene. SB1, defined as the sequence boundary, was generated by subaerial processes during the Late Pleistocene regression and could be remolded partially or significantly by transgressive ravinement processes subsequently. The basal unit U1 (fluvial formations) within incised valleys is ar- ranged into the lowstand systems tract (LST) formed in the early slow sea-level rise ~19-14.5 cal.kyr BP, the U2 unit is arranged into the early transgressive systems tract (E-TST) deposited mainly within incised-valleys under the tide- influenced river to estuarine conditions in the rapid sea-level rise ~14.5-9 cal.kyr BP, the U3 unit is arranged into the late transgressive systems tract (L-TST) deposited widely on the continental shelf in the fully marine condition during the late sea-level rise ~9-7 cal.kyr BP, and the U4 unit represents for the highstand systems tract (HST) with clino- form structure surrounding the modern delta coast, extending to the water depth of 25-30 m, developed by sediments from the Red River system in ~3-0 cal.kyr BP. Keywords: Sequence stratigraphy; Systems tracts; Red River delta; Sedimentary evolution; Sedimentary facies. ©2018 Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology 1. Introduction1 Application of sequence stratigraphy has been used for numerous continental shelves to increase deep insights to the history of late Pleistocene-Holocene sedimentary evolution *Corresponding author, Email: ntthanh@imgg.vast.vn in relation to the global sea-level change. A significant amount of high resolution seismic data collected on the modern continental shelves facilitates for applying the sequence stratigraphy theories (Boyd et al., 1992; Saito et al., 1998; Hanebuth et al., 2004; Dung et al., 2013; Yoo et al., 2014; Thanh, 2017 etc.). Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 272 Numerous classifications of sedimentary sys- tem tracts and sequence boundaries have been proposed by other authors based on various case studies (Posamentier et al., 1998; Van Wagoner et al., 1988; Embry and Johannes- sen, 1992 and Posamentier and Allen, 1999; Hunt and Tucker, 1992, 1995 etc.). Some re- cent researches on sequence stratigraphy aim to the standardization of sequence stratigraphy concepts or definitions (Catuneanu et al., 2002, 2006, 2009, and 2011). As a result, a complete sequence includes four systems tracts: lowstand systems tract (LST), trans- gressive systems tract (TST), highstand sys- tems tract (HST), and falling stage systems tract (FSST) (Catuneanu et al., 2002, 2006, 2009, and 2011). In the Red River Delta, a variety of re- search results on the Holocene delta evolution based on around 16 boreholes (Tanabe et al., 2003a,b; Hori et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2006; Funabiki et al., 2007; Lieu, 2006). In general, the sedimentary evolution of the Red River Delta has experienced three major stag- es: fluvial stage, estuary stage and delta stage (Lam, 2003; Tanabe et al., 2003b,c; Hori et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2006; Lieu, 2006; Fu- nabiki et al., 2007). A number of sedimentary environments were reconstructed by investi- gating the sediment cores of these boreholes. Application of sequence stratigraphy on the modern delta plain in late Pleistocene- Holocene was carried out and the stratum was divided into three system tracts LST, TST and HST (Tanabe et al., 2006). However, the understanding on the Red River subaqueous delta and the adjacent shelf is still sparse. Some previous researchers on the Red River subaqueous delta consist of sedimentation and sediment dynamics (Bergh et al., 2007; Duc et al., 2007; Ross, 2011). Therefore, unraveling the sedimentary evolu- tion of the Red River subaqueous delta needs to be conducted in more detail. These ob- tained research results will satisfy require- ments for coastal protection and forecast of the Red River delta in the present sea-level rise and human impacts from the upstream to the lowland delta plain. The available research results on delta plain would be able to assist interpreting seismic facies on the seismic pro- files. In this research, we focused on deter- mining some major sedimentary environments and using sequence stratigraphy theory to de- velop a simplified concept sequence stratigra- phy model for the study area. 2. Background information 2.1. Geography The Red River originates from the moun- tainous range of Yunnan Province, China at an elevation above 2000 m and drains an area of 160×103 km2 (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992). The Red River flows through two countries as China and Vietnam before dis- charges into the Gulf of Tonkin in the East Sea. The total sediment discharge is ~100-130 million ton/yr and the water discharge is 120 km3/yr (Milliman and Mead, 1983; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992). The water mean dis- charge is 3300 m3/s, which was estimated in recent years (Luu et al., 2010). Approximately 90% of the sediment discharge occurs during the summer monsoon season (Mathers et al., 1996; Mathers and Zalasiewicz, 1999). In the Red River delta plain, the river system subdi- vides into two major distributaries in the vi- cinity of Hanoi, the Red River to the south- west and the Thai Binh River to the northeast (Figure 1). The Thai Binh River transports ~ 20% of the total water discharge of the delta river system (General Department of Land Administration, 1996). The sediment dis- charge of the Red river has built one of the largest deltas in the world during the Holo- cene. The youngest geomorphological unit of the Red River delta as known the subaqueous delta is located below the present sea level and reaches the water depth of 25-30 m Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 273 (Figure 1). The study area includes the suba- queous Red river delta and adjacent shelf ex- tending the water depth of ~40 m and south- wards to the latitude 18.5° N (Figure 1). Figure 1. Study area (available boreholes on the Red River delta plain and recorded seismic profiles) 2.2. Oceanography The tide is characterized by semi-diurnal regime with an average range ~2.0-2.6 m (Coleman and Wright, 1975). The maximum tide ranges ~3.2-4.0 m along the Red River delta coast (Mathers et al., 1996; Mathers and Zalasiewicz, 1999; Thanh and Huy, 2000). In the summer monsoon season, the high river discharge restricts tidal influence into the Red River distributaries. The tidal effect is visible in all the major distributaries almost as far in- land as Hanoi in the winter monsoon season due to the low river discharge (Mathers et al., 1996; Mathers and Zalasiewicz, 1999). Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 274 Along the delta coast, mean and maximum wave heights are respectively ~0.88 and 5.0 m (Thanh and Huy, 2000). The strong southwest wind during the summer monsoon tends to produce north, northwest-directed waves in the Gulf of Tonkin. Throughout most of the rest of the year, the wind blows from the east, north-east and produces south, south-west- directed waves (Mathers et al., 1996; Mathers and Zalasiewicz., 1999). In accordance with the study of Mathers et al. (1996), the Red River deltaic coast is considered a mixed en- ergy coast (tide-wave dominated coast). 2.3. Holocene sedimentary evolution on the Red River delta plain The geographical area of the Red River delta and the adjacent continental shelf had been exposed to subaerial processes during the last glacial maximum stage (LGM) ~23-19 cal.kyr BP. The paleo-river systems flowed through the area of interest and generated in- cised valley systems in this period. A large incised valley on the delta plain was recog- nized through the borehole ND-1, located at southwestward of the Red River delta. After the last glacial maximum, the sea-level rose approximately from -120 m to -90 m in the stage ~19-14.5 cal.kyr BP and was able to cause the early infilling of fluvial sediments within incised-valleys. The lithology of fluvial sediments in the borehole ND-1 demonstrated pebbly sand (Facies 1.1) (Figure 2) (Tanabe et al., 2006). Then the sea level continued to rise from -90 m to -7 m in the stage ~14.5-8 cal.kyr BP that caused the flood of the entire continental shelf and established the area of the Red River delta plain becoming a large es- tuary. A variety of sedimentary facies formed in the estuarine condition include: tide- influenced channel-fill to coastal marsh (facies 2.1), lagoon muddy sediments (facies 2.2), flood tidal delta (facies 2.3), tidal flat and salt marsh (facies 2.4), sub to intertidal flat (facies 2.5) and estuarine front sediments (facies 2.6) (Figure 2) (Tanabe et al., 2003a,b; Hori et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2006; Fu- nabiki et al., 2007; Lieu, 2006). The Red Riv- er delta initiated since ~8.1 cal.kyr BP (Tana- be et al., 2006) corresponding to the decelerat- ing rise of sea-level (Hori et al., 2004). Sub- sequently, the sea level gradually declined ~3 m till the present sea-level since the highstand sea level in ~6-4 cal.kyr BP. This sea-level fall is one of the factors increasing the speed of the delta progradation seawards. A variety of sedimentary deltaic facies were found in- cluding: tide-influenced channel-fill (facies 3.1), shelf to prodelta (facies 3.2), delta front slope (facies 3.3), delta front platform (facies 3.4), sub-tidal flat (facies 3.5), tidal flat (faci- es 3.6), mangrove swamp/salt marsh (facies 3.7), tide-influenced channel-fill (facies 3.8), natural levee (facies 3.9), abandoned channel- fill (facies 3.10), delta flood plain (facies 3.11) (Tanabe et al.,2006) (Figure 2). The available 14C dating data of sediment cores on the delta plain indicates that the fluvial facies at base of incised valleys were formed before 14.5 cal.kyr BP, the coastal-estuary facies were formed predominately ~11-9 cal.kyr BP, and then the delta facies were formed ~8.0-0 cal.kyr BP (Tanabe et al., 2003b,c; Hori et al., 2004; Tanabe et al., 2006; Lieu, 2006; Fu- nabiki et al., 2007). The sequence stratigraphy approach was also used for investigating the delta plain based on drilling core data (Tanabe et al., 2016). Three sedimentary systems tracts divided include: lowstand systems tract (LST), transgressive systems tract (TST), and highstand systems tract (HST) (Figure 2) (Tanabe et al., 2016). Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 275 Figure 2. Sedimentary facies and systems tracts in sediment cores DT, ND-1 and HV (Tanabe et al., 2006) 3. Methodology and documents 3.1. Sequences stratigraphy methodology Sequence stratigraphy is used as a method- ology providing a framework for the elements of any depositional setting, facilitating paleo- geographical reconstruction and predicting lithofacies away from control points (Catune- anu et al., 2011). A complete sequence in- cludes four systems tracts: falling-stage sys- tems tract (FSST), lowstand systems tract (LST), transgressive systems tract (TST) and highstand systems tract (HST) (eg., Hunt and Tucker, 1992, 1995; Helland-Hansen and Gjelberg, 1994; Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011). Each systems tract is separated with the un- derline systems tract and overlying systems tract by the major bounding surfaces such as SB (sequence boundary), TS (transgressive surface), TRS (transgressive revinement sur- face) and MFS (maximum flooding surface) (eg., Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011). The trans- gressive surface was named alternatively such as ‘initial transgressive surface’ ITS Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 276 (Nummedal et al., 1993) and had been estab- lished in the early period of sea-level rise after the lowstand sea-level. The transgressive ravinement surface (TRS) was named alterna- tively such as RS in a number of researches (Dung et al., 2013; Yoo et al., 2014 etc.). The transgressive ravinement surface (TRS) had been generated by strong marine erosion of waves and littoral currents in the coast and shallow-water settings. The maximum flood- ing surface (MFS) has been generated by sed- iment starvation stage on the continental shelf due to the farthest invasion of sea landward. Each sequence is corresponding to a sedi- mentary cycle bounded by sequence bounda- ries (SB). Generally, a complete sequence in- cludes four systems tracts (LST, TST, HST, FSST) (Figure 3A). Sedimentary cycles are arranged into the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth orders (e.g., Catuneanu et al., 2011). These orders correspond to the geological time scales from tens of millions of years to tens of thousands of years. The concepts of the systems tracts are defined as follow: (i) The falling stage systems tract (FSST) was formed entirely during the stage of rela- tive sea-level fall (forced regression). (ii) The lowstand systems tract (LST) was formed during the earliest stage of relative sea-level rise at the lower rate than the sedimentation rate (normal regression). (iii) The transgressive systems tract (TST) was formed during the stage of relative sea- level rise at the higher rate than the sedimen- tation rate. (iv) The highstand systems tract (HST) was formed during the latest stage of relative sea- level rise at lower rate than the sedimentation rate. In this study, we focus on investigating the development of sequence stratigraphy on the subaqueous Red River delta and the adjacent shelf since LGM (~23-19 cal.kyr BP) to the present. In this period, the sea-level rose slow- ly in the early stage of ~19-14.5 cal.kyr BP, at the higher speed in the stage ~ 14.5-8 cal.kyr BP, decelerating rise of sea-level in the stage of ~ 8-6 cal.kyr BP (Hanebuth et al., 2011; Tanabe et al., 2006). Then the sea level has declined ~2-3 m to the present sea-level since 4-6 cal.ky BP (Lam and Boyd, 2000; Tanabe et al., 2006). Three systems tracts were divid- ed relatively based on the deglacial sea-level change since LGM and classification of sys- tems tracts on the delta plain. The lowstand systems tract was generated in ~19-14.5 cal.kyr BP, the transgressive systems tract was generated in ~14.5-7.0 cal.kyr BP, and the highstand systems tract was generated ~7- 0 cal.kyr BP. (Figure 3B). Figure 3. (A) Systems tracts (FSST, LST, TST, HST) and surfaces (TS and MFS) (Hunt and Tucker, 1992); (B) The sea-level curve for the study area (Tanabe et al., 2006) and classification of systems tracts since LGM (LST, TST and HST) Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 277 3.2. Seismic interpretation and facies analysis A number of seismic profiles were referred from some previous documents such as RR1- 02, RR2-08, RR2-19 and RR2-22 (Ross, 2011) (Figure 1). This data collected in 2010 and 2011 with about 1100 km in the coopera- tion between North Carolina State University, United States and Institute of Marine Envi- ronment and Resources, Vietnam, by using EdgeTech X-Star 0512i Chirp Sonar Sub- Bottom profiler with a frequency range of 0.5- 12 kHz and the vertical resolution of data is 4- 50 cm. The high-resolution seismic reflection data were collected in 2016 with approximately 200 km by using a Sparker system, with the pulse rate of 1 second, energy max 2800J, trace length of 150-250 ms and a frequency range of 200-1000 Hz. This data was recorded around the Day river mouth, which is located southwestward over 50 km from the Balat riv- er mouth (Figure 1). Seismic data was interpreted on the basis of the sequence stratigraphic concept pro- posed by Mitchum and Vail (1977) and fur- ther refined by other authors. The seismic units were distinguished by their reflection continuity, amplitude, frequency and geome- try of seismic facies. For example, a relative classification of seismic facies and related depositional environments were adapted by Badley (1985), Vail (1987) and Veeken (2006) (Figure 4). Figure 4. Relative classification of seismic facies and related depositional environments adapted by Badley (1985), Vail (1987) and Veeken (2006) Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 278 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Research results In general, four seismic units and four bounding major surfaces were identified on the seismic profiles. The seismic units are named by increasing number in order of de- creasing age: Major bounding surfaces: (i) SB1 is marked by highly continuous and strong amplitude reflections in the record- ed seismic document. It could be observed on the seismic profiles (Figure 5-11). (ii) TS can be traced in some incised- valleys, where it is characterized by weak am- plitude and is almost merged with the surface SB1 towards the edges of some incised- valleys (Figure 5-7). (iii) TRS mainly traced in some incised- valleys, where it is characterized by moderate amplitude, and tends to merge with TS and SB1 towards the edges of some incised val- leys (Figure 5, 6, 8 and 9). (iv) MFS is marked by medium to low amplitude and relatively continuous reflectors. MFS was recorded in the inner shelf around the modern Red River Delta (0-25 m in water depth), which generally forms the boundary between the lower sheet-like transparent re- flector unit and the overlying seaward clino- form unit (Figure 5, 8, 10 and 11). Figure 5. (a) Seismic profile RR1-02 (Ross, 2011), (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Figure 6. (a) Seismic profile RR2-19 (Ross, 2011), (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 279 Seismic units: U1 is characterized by steeply inclining re- flectors locating on one side within some in- cised valleys (indicating the development of fluvial bar) (Figure 7) or strong acoustic re- flection fields that are recorded at the base of the incised-valley system (Figure 5 and 6). Its deposits occupy in the basal part of the chan- nels. It is represented by the medium ampli- tude and low to medium continuity reflectors. The maximum thickness of this unit reaches ~10 m. U2 is recorded mainly within the incised- valley system and represented by low to me- dium amplitude and medium continuity re- flectors. The seismic fields indicate the sedi- mentary structure that conforms approximate- ly to the channel shape with upward concavity layers in the lower portion, to asymmetrically steeply inclined layers, horizontal layers up- wards. It overlies on unit U1 or the surface SB1 (Figure 5-8) and its maximum thickness reaches ~20 m. U3 is recorded widely on the entire conti- nental shelf and represented by weak horizon- tal layers to the transparent layer with the thickness often less than 4 m. It distributes widely on the continental shelf and is overlain by unit U4 in the subaqueous delta area (Fig- ure 5, 6, 8 and 9). Figure 7. (a) Seismic profile RR2-08 (Ross, 2011), (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Figure 8. (a) Seismic profile RR2-22 (Ross, 2011), (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 280 Figure 9. (a) Seismic profile CuaDay-15, (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Figure 10. (a) Seismic profile CuaDay_03, (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 281 Figure 11. (a) Seismic profile CuaDay_05, (b) sequence stratigraphic interpretation U4 is the uppermost portion and well rec- orded in the subaqueous Red River Delta (0- 25 m in water depth) and surrounds the mod- ern delta coast (Figure 1), showing dipping reflectors. It forms a tangential downlap struc- ture to the MFS surface. The thickness of U4 ranges in ~15-20 m estimated at the topset portion and tends to be thinning seaward (Figure 5, 8, 10 and 11). 4.2. Discussions The sea-level curve for the East Sea (also known as the South China Sea in the interna- tional name) since LGM can be divided into three parts as mentioned (Figure 3B). In some previous studies, the paleo-sea level at LGM was suggested to be located at ~120-125 m below the present sea-level (Hanebuth et al., 2000, 2004, 2011; Tanabe et al., 2006). The paleo-shoreline in the East Sea during that time was situated near the shelf margin at the present water depth of ~120 m. The Vietnam continental shelf was gradually exposed to subaerial processes during the Late Pleisto- cene regression and the stiff tropical soil was formed widely (Thanh, 2017). As a result, an erosional unconformity surface was formed in LGM. Then the sea-level rise partially or sig- nificantly modified this unconformity surface except in incised valleys and depressions. This unconformity surface is defined as the sequences boundary (SB1). The SB1 surface on the shelf in the Gulf of Tonkin could be similar to the SB1 surface determined on the SE Vietnam Shelf and the Sunda Shelf that was defined by Dung et al. (2013), Thanh (2017), and Hanebuth et al. (2011). In the nearshore area, the depth of SB1 is approxi- mately 25-30 m below the present sea-level and it deepens seaward. The paleo-Red River and some other paleo-rivers flowed through the continental shelf during the LGM and generated incised-valleys. The large incised valleys reach ~20-30 m deep below the seabed and range ~6-10 km in width (Figure 5-7). The seismic profile RR2-08 is located >100 km to the south of the subaqueous delta and quite far from the supplying source of Red River sediments (Figure 1). The seismic characteristics of seabed on the profile RR2- 08 reveals a hard sea bottom (Figure 7) and attempts for coring by the gravity corer failed (Ross, 2011). A large incised-valley, ~6 km wide in cross section and ~14 m deep, was observed on this seismic profile (Ross, 2011). Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 282 Based on the seismic profiles (Figure 5, 6 and 8), the major paleo-Red River and some other paleo-rivers were able to flow towards south- east during LGM (Figure 12). The other small incised valleys observed on the profiles CuaDay_03, CuaDay_15-2 located in the southwest of the subaqueous delta represents for local paleo-rivers working in LGM. They are narrow (less than 3 km wide) and ~15-20 m deep in general (Figure 10). The major paleo-rivers were marked on the map based on the data of sediment boreholes on the delta plain and the available seismic profiles rec- orded on the shelf (Figure 12). Figure 12. Paleo-river systems on the continental shelf in the last glacial maximum During the early slow transgression (19- 14.5 cal.kyr BP), the increase of base level was able to restrict the river incision and caused some lateral shifts of large paleo-river channels or the initial filling of river channels creating fluvial bars on the convex river banks (Figure 7) or formation of pebbly sand occur- ring at the base of the incised valleys. These sediments (U1) are able to be inferred deposit- ing in the fully fluvial condition in the early sea-level rise stage and arranged into the lowstand systems tract. The U1 unit is deter- mined as the strong seismic field at the base of the incised-valleys (Figure 5 and 6) or con- sists of cross-bedding reflectors that are visi- ble in the seismic profile RR2-08 (Figure 7). In the sediment cores ND-1 (Tanabe et al., 2006) and TB2 (Lieu, 2006) on the delta plain, the fluvial facies corresponding to the U1 seismic unit consists of facies 1.1 in ND-1 and facies 0.3 in the core TB2. This U1 unit is bounded by the basal surface (SB1) and the overlying surface (TS). During the transgression (14.5-9 cal.kyr BP) with high speed of sea-level rise, a tide- influenced river to an estuarine environment probably developed. Sediments derived from the paleo-rivers were trapped in the tide- influenced river to the estuary and formed the sedimentary unit U2. The U2 unit presents Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 283 within incised valleys and its sedimentary structure conforms approximately to the channel shape with upward concavity layers in the lower portion, to asymmetrically steep- ly inclined layers, horizontal layers upwards (Figure 5 and 6). These structures indicate sediments deposited in the channels under the tide-influenced condition (Reineck and Singh, 1980). The sediment structures usually indi- cate the intercalation of sand and mud layers (Tjallingii et al. 2010; Thanh, 2017). The sandy sediments deposited in the high-speed flow of water in the ebb tide and flooding tide while the muddy deposits formed in slack tide periods (weak flows). The U2 unit overlies on U1 and normally shows the finning upward of strata due to the sea-level rise. The sedimen- tary structure of U2 demonstrates the tidal in- fluence on sediment deposition in the river channels in the period ~14.5-9 cal.ky BP. The U2 unit was formed in corresponding to the facies 2.1 of the sediment core ND-01 (Tana- be et al., 2006). This unit is arranged into the early transgressive systems tract (E-TST). Therefore, the TS surface can be defined at the top of the lowstand deposits as a result of the change of depositional conditions from completely river control to tide-influenced river or estuarine environments. The TS sur- face could be demonstrated in the concept of initial transgressive surface (Nummedal et al., 1993) that was formed in the early sea level rise. As the transgression continued (9-7 cal.kyr BP), coastal processes including wave and tide actions caused coastal erosion and coastal shallow seabed erosion to form the transgres- sive ravinement surface (TRS) and sort coarse sediments (U3) overlying this surface. The U3 unit demonstrates the transparent acoustic field or the structure of parallel layers. It gen- erally has a thickness less than 4 m and could be observed at the upper part of the seismic sections on the adjacent continental shelf. The U3 unit was deposited in the fully marine condition and probably reworked by modern shelf hydrodynamic processes. The transgres- sive ravinement surface (TRS) tends to merge the surface SB1 towards the banks of incised- valleys and become one surface that is defined as the sequence boundary (SB1). Therefore, the U3 unit properly overlies on SB1 widely on the continental shelf. In some seismic pro- files recorded near the Day river mouth, the seismic facies in some incised-valleys and an adjacent portion is not so clear to identify U2 and U3 separately due to the quality of this data. Therefore, the unit U2-3 was named in these cases (Figure 9 and 10). In the delta plain, the U3 unit was deter- mined in the drilling cores ND-01, VN, HV and GA as the lower part of facies 3.2 (Tana- be et al., 2006). However, the condition for deposition in landward part in a large estua- rine environment is quite different from the open shelf because the hydrodynamic energy on the open shelf was much higher. Therefore, sediments of this unit tend to coarser than fa- cies 3.2. The surface sediment distribution demonstrates mainly muddy sand and sand (Duc et al., 2007). Sand fields distributed on the seabed at the depth deeper than 25 m in the study area mainly derive from early- middle Holocene sediments (Duc et al., 2007). This similar sedimentary characteristic was found on the SE Vietnam Shelf (Tjallingii et al., 2010; Dung et al., 2013 and Thanh, 2017). The thin thickness of U3 could be explained by the sediment discharge of the paleo-Red River system is inadequate to an extremely large and gentle area of the continental shelf and due to the high acceleration of sea-level rise in the transgression. The sea-level rise pushed fine sediments towards the coastline and trapped mainly in incised valleys or de- pressions. The sea-level rise nearly reached its pre- sent position approximately 7.5-7.0 cal.kyr BP (Tjallingii et al., 2010; Stattegger et al., 2013). The maximum flooding surface was formed Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 284 after the maximum landward migration of the shoreline ~8 cal.kyr BP. Delta sediments (cores CC, DT and ND-1) immediately above the maximum flooding surface were dated to about 7.5 -7.0 cal.kyr BP, which is in good agreement with the termination of the trans- gression. The U4 unit is observed overlying on the maximum flooding surface on the seismic profiles and showing the downlap structure (Figure 5, 8, 9, and 10). The dating age data of the core HV on the delta plain near the present shoreline indicates the delta sedi- ment generally younger than 3 cal.kyr BP (Tanabe et al., 2006). The lithology of U4 could be inferred from the cores ND-1 and HV range from very fine silty sand to silty clay and to laminated muddy sand, corre- sponding to facies 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 (Tanabe et al., 2006). Therefore, the age of U4 would be younger than 3 cal.kyr BP. During the stage of 3-0 cal.kyr BP, the sea level has declined ~2 m to the present sea level. The U4 unit is con- tinuous from the delta plain to the sea and pinch out towards the shelf at the water depth of 25-30 m. The portion of the delta sediments (U4) under the present sea-level is called the subaqueous delta that surrounds the modern delta coast and forms a youngest geomorpho- logical unit of the Red River delta. The boundary of U4 was drawn by using bathy- metric data (bathymetry map with the scale 1: 200000) in combining with some high resolu- tion seismic data (Figure 12). This U4 unit is corresponding to the upper part of facies 3.2 and 3.3 and 3.4 in sediment cores ND-1, VN, NB, HV and GA (Tanabe et al., 2006). Generally, the sequence stratigraphy model of the Red River subaqueous delta and the ad- jacent shelf could be demonstrated in Figure 13. The ages of the system tracts are predicted relatively in corresponding to the available drilling core data on the delta plain and the stages of the sea-level rise since LGM. The simplified conceptual model reveals five stag- es for forming four major surfaces (SB1, TS, TRS, and MFS) and four major sedimentary units (U1, U2, U3 and U4) corresponding to the lowstand systems tract (LST), early trans- gressive systems tract (E-TST), late transgres- sive systems tract (L-TST) and highstand sys- tems tract (HST). 5. Conclusions Analyses of high-resolution seismic pro- files collected from the subaqueous Red River Delta and the adjacent shelf in the Gulf of Tonkin leads to the following conclusions. (i) The late Pleistocene-Holocene depos- its in the study area generate a high-frequency sequence including lowstand, early transgres- sive, late transgressive and highstand systems tracts that correspond to a fifth-order sea-level change (~20 kyr). Four major sedimentary units (U1, U2, U3 and U4) constitute the youngest sequence of the Quaternary deposits. (ii) The lowstand systems tract (LST) de- fined as the U1 unit formed in completely flu- vial sedimentary environments within the in- cised-valleys system bounded by the basal se- quence boundary SB1 and the early transgres- sive surface (TS). The lowstand systems tract formed during the early slow sea-level rise ~19-14.5 cal.kyr BP. (iii) The transgressive systems tract (TST) includes the U2 and U3 units. The U2 unit formed in the tide-influenced river to estuary conditions in the stage of ~14.5-9 cal.kyr BP and is arranged into the early transgressive systems tract (E-TST). The U2 unit overlies on U1 and being separated by the early trans- gressive surface. The U3 unit includes shelf sediments deposited in the fully marine envi- ronments in ~9-7 cal.kyr BP and probably has been reworked by modern hydrodynamic pro- cesses on the shelf. The U3 unit is arranged into the late transgressive systems tract (L- TST) and is separated from the U2 unit by the transgressive ravinement surface (TRS). (iv) The highstand systems tract is com- posed of the mud clinoform unit (U4) creating Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 285 the subaqueous delta surrounding the present Red River delta coast. The sediment of U4 has been delivered from the Red River system and Thaibinh river system in the stage of ~3-0 cal.kyr BP. The subaqueous delta has pro- graded seawards overlying the transgressive units (U2 and U3) and being separated by the maximum flooding surface (MFS). Figure 13. Simplified sequence stratigraphy model showing the depositional development stages of the subaqueous Red River delta and the adjacent shelf: (A) The occurrence of sequence boundary (SB1) during the lowstand stage, (B) Formation of LST during the early stage of slow sea-level rise, (C) Formation of E-TST, (D) Formation of L-TST, E) Formation of HST; TS- Transgressive surface, TRS- Transgressive ravinement surface, MFS- Maximum flooding surface Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the joint project between Vietnam - China “Compara- tive study of Holocene Sedimentary Evolution of the Yangtze River Delta and the Red River Delta”, the project VAST.ĐTCB.02/16-17 and the other supports from IMGG for inves- tigating the Red River delta. References Badley M.E., 1985. Practical Seismic Interpretation. In- ternational Human Resources Development Corpo- ration, Boston, 266p. Nguyen Trung Thanh, et al./Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (2018) 286 Bergh G.D. V.D., Van Weering T.C.E., Boels J.F., Duc D.M., Nhuan M.T., 2007. Acoustical facies analysis at the Ba Lat delta front (Red River delta, North Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Science, 29, 532-544. Boyd R., Dalrymple R., Zaitlin B.A., 1992. Classifica- tion of Elastic Coastal Depositional Environments. Sedimentary Geology, 80, 139-150. Catuneanu O., 2002. Sequence stratigraphy of clastic systems: concepts, merits, and pitfalls. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 35, 1-43. Catuneanu O., Abreu V., Bhattacharya J.P., Blum M.D., Dalrymple R.W., Eriksson P.G., Fielding C.R., Fish- er W.L., Galloway W.E., Gibling M.R., Giles K.A., Holbrook J.M., Jordan R., Kendall C.G. St. C., Macurda B., Martinsen O.J., Miall A.D., Neal J.E., Nummedal D., Pomar L., Posamentier H.W., Pratt B.R., Sarg J.F., Shanley K.W., Steel R. J., Strasser A., Tucker M.E., Winker C., 2009. Towards the standardization of sequence stratigraphy. Earth- Science Reviews, 92, 1-33. Catuneanu O., Galloway W.E., Kendall C.G. St C., Miall A.D., Posamentier H.W., Strasser A. and Tucker M.. E., 2011. Sequence Stratigraphy: Meth- odology and Nomenclature. Newsletters on Stratig- raphy, 44(3), 173-245. Catuneanu O., 2006. Principles of Sequence Stratigra- phy. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 375p. Coleman J.M. and Wright L.D., 1975. Modern river del- tas: variability of processes and sand bodies. In: Broussard M.L (Ed), Deltas: Models for exploration. Houston Geological Society, Houston, 99-149. Duc D.M., Nhuan M.T., Ngoi C.V., Nghi T., Tien D.M., Weering J.C.E., Bergh G.D., 2007. Sediment distri- bution and transport at the nearshore zone of the Red River delta, Northern Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 29, 558-565. Dung B.V., Stattegger K., Unverricht D., Phach P.V., Thanh N.T., 2013. Late Pleistocene-Holocene seis- mic stratigraphy of the Southeast Vietnam Shelf. Global and Planetary Change, 110, 156-169. Embry A.F and Johannessen E.P., 1992. T-R sequence stratigraphy, facies analysis and reservoir distribu- tion in the uppermost Triassic-Lower Jurassic suc- cession, western Sverdrup Basin, Arctic Canada. In: Vorren T.O., Bergsager E., Dahl-Stamnes O.A., Holter E., Johansen B., Lie E., Lund T.B. (Eds.), Arctic Geology and Petroleum Potential. Special Publication. Norwegian Petroleum Society (NPF), 2, 121-146. Funabiki A., Haruyama S., Quy N.V., Hai P.V., Thai D.H., 2007. Holocene delta plain development in the Song Hong (Red River) delta, Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 30, 518-529. General Department of Land Administration., 1996. Vietnam National Atlas. General Department of Land Administration, Hanoi, 163p. Hanebuth T.J.J. and Stattegger K., 2004. Depositional sequences on a late Pleistocene-Holocene tropical si- liciclastic shelf (Sunda shelf, Southeast Asia). Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 23, 113-126. Hanebuth T.J.J., Voris H.K.., Yokoyama Y., Saito Y., Okuno J., 2011. Formation and fate of sedimentary depocenteres on Southeast Asia’s Sunda Shelf over the past sea-level cycle and biogeographic implica- tions. Eath-Science Reviews, 104, 92-110. Hanebuth T., Stattegger K. and Grootes P.M., 2000. Rapid flooding of the Sunda Shelf: a late-glacial sea- level record. Science, 288, 1033-1035. Helland-Hansen W. and Gjelberg, J.G., 1994. Conceptual basis and variability in sequence stratigraphy: a dif- ferent perspective. Sedimentary Geology, 92, 31-52. Hori K., Tanabe S., Saito Y., Haruyama S., Nguyen V., Kitamura., 2004. Delta initiation and Holocene sea- level change: example from the Song Hong (Red River) delta, Vietnam. Sedimentary Geology, 164, 237-249. Hunt D. and Tucker M.E., 1992. Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: depo- sition during base-level fall. Sedimentology Geolo- gy, 81, 1-9. Hunt D. and Tucker M.E., 1995. Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: depo- sition during base-level fall-reply. Sedimentary Ge- ology 95, 147-160. Lam D.D. and Boyd W.E., 2000. Holocene coastal stra- tigraphy and model for the sedimentary development of the Hai Phong area in the Red River delta, north Viet Nam. Journal of Geology (Series B), 15-16, 18-28. Doan Dinh Lam, 2003. History of Holocene sedimentary evolution of the Red River delta. PhD thesis in Vi- etnam, 129p (in Vietnamese). Lieu N.T.H., 2006. Holocene evolution of the Central Red River delta, Northern Vietnam. PhD thesis of lithological and mineralogical in Germany, 130p. Luu T.N.M., Garnier J., Billen G., Orange D., Némery J., Le T.P.Q., Tran H.T., Le L.A., 2010. Hydrologi- cal regime and water budget of the Red River Delta (Northern Vietnam). Journal of Asian Earth Scienc- es, 37, 219-228. Vietnam Journal of Earth Sciences, 40(3), 271-287 287 Mather S.J., Davies J., Mc Donal A., Zalasiewicz J.A., and Marsh S., 1996. The Red River Delta of Vietnam. British Geological Survey Tecchnical Re- port WC/96/02, 41p. Mathers S.J. and Zalasiewicz J.A.,1999. Holocene sedi- mentary architecture of the Red River delta, Vietnam. Journal of Coastal Research, 15, 314-325. Milliman J.D. and Syvitski J.P.M., 1992. Geo- morphic/tectonic control of sediment discharge to the Ocean: the importance of small mountainous riv- ers. Journal of Geology, 100, 525-544. Milliman J.D. and Mead R.H., 1983. World-wide deliv- ery of river sediment to the oceans. Journal of Geol- ogy, 91, 1-21. Mitchum Jr., R.M., Vail P.R., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level. Part 7: stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in depo- sitional sequences. In: Payton C.E. (Ed.), Seismic Stratigraphy-Applications to Hydrocarbon Explora- tion, A.A.P.G. Memoir, 26, 135-144. Nguyen T.T., 2017. Late Pleistocene-Holocene sedimen- tary evolution of the South East Vietnam Shelf, PhD thesis (in Vietnamese), Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam, 169p. Nummedal D., Riley G.W., Templet P.T., 1993. High resolution sequence architecture: a chronostrati- graphic model based on equilibrium profile studies. In: Posamentier H.W., Summerhayes C.P., Haq B.U., Allen G.P. (Eds.), Sequence stratigraphy and Facies Associations. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication, 18, 55-58. Posamentier H.W. and Allen G.P., 1999. Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy: concepts and applications. SEPM Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontolo- gy, 7, 210p. Posamentier H.W., Jervey M.T. and Vail P.R., 1988. Eustatic controls on clastic deposition I-Conceptual framework. Sea-level changes-An Integrated Ap- proach, The Society of Economic Paleotologists and Minaralogist. SEPM Special Publication, 42, 109-124. Reineck H.E., Singh I.B., 1980. Depositional sedimen- tary environments with reference to terrigenous clas- tics. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York, 551p. Ross K., 2011. Fate of Red River Sediment in the Gulf of Tonkin, Vietnam. Master Thesis. North Carolina State University, 91p. Saito Y., Katayama H., Ikehara K., Kato Y., Matsumoto E., Oguri K., Oda M., Yumoto M., 1998. Transgres- sive and highstand systems tracts and post-glacial transgression, the East China Sea. Sedimentary Ge- ology, 122, 217-232. Stattegger K., Tjallingii R., Saito Y., Michelli M., Ngu- yen T.T.., Wetzel A., 2013. Mid to late Holocene sea-level reconstruction of Southeast Vietnam using beachrock and beach-ridge deposits. Global and Planetary Change, 110, 214-222. Tanabe S., Hori K., Saito Y., Haruyama S., Doanh L. Q., Sato Y., Hiraide S., 2003a. Sedimentary facies and radiocarbon dates of the Nam Dinh-1 core from the Song Hong (Red River) delta, Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 21, 503-513. Tanabe S., Hori K., Saito Y., Haruyama S., Phai V.V., Kitamura A., 2003b. Song Hong (Red River) delta evolution related to millennium-scale Holocene sea- level changes. Quaternary Science Reviews, 22(21- 22), 2345-2361. Tanabe S., Saito Y., Lan V.Q., Hanebuth T.J.J., Lan N.Q., Kitamura A., 2006. Holocene evolution of the Song Hong (Red River) delta system, north- ern Vietnam. Sedimentary Geology, 187, 29-61. Tjallingii R., Stattegger K., Wetzel A., Phung Van Phach, 2010. Infilling and flooding of the Mekong River incised valley during deglacial sea-level rise. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 1432-1444. Thanh T.D. and Huy D.V., 2000. Coastal development of the modern Red River Delta. Bulletin of the Geo- logical Survey of Japan, 5, 276. Vail P.R., 1987. Seismic stratigraphy interpretation pro- cedure. In: Bally, A.W. (Ed), Atlats of Seismic Stra- tigraphy. American Association of Petroleum Geol- ogist Studies in Geology, 27, 1-10. Van Wagoner J.C., Posamentier H.W., Mitchum R.M., Vail P.R., Sarg P.R., Louit J.F., Hardenbol J., 1988. An overview of the fundamental of sequence stratig- raphy and key definitions. An Integrated Approach, SEPM Special Publication, 42, 39-45. Veeken P.C.H., 2006. Seismic stratigraphy Basin Analy- sis and Reservoi Charactization. Handbook of geo- physical exploration, Elsevier, Oxford, 37509p. Yoo D.G., Kim S.P., Chang T.S., Kong G.S., Kang N.K., Kwon Y.K., Nam S.L., Park S.C., 2014. Late Quaternary inner shelf deposits in response to late Pleistocene-Holocene sea-level changes: Nakdong River, SE Korea. Quaternary International, 344, 156-169.