Quản lí dự án - Chapter 7: Monitoring and controlling the project

Chapter 7Monitoring and Controlling the ProjectMonitoring and ControlMonitoring is the collection, recording, and reporting of project informationControl uses the monitored data to bring actual performance into agreement with the planMonitoring and control are the opposite sides of project selection and planningProject selection dictates what to monitorProject planning identifies the elements to be controlledPlan-Monitor-Control CycleThe plan–monitor-control cycle constitutes a “closed loop” processContinues until the project is completedWith complex projects, there is a temptation to minimize the planning–monitoring–controlling effort so that “real work” can be doneIt is these projects that need the planning–monitoring–controlling process the mostProject Authorization and Expenditure Control System Information FlowFigure 7-1Designing the Monitoring SystemIdentify special characteristics of scope, cost, and time that need to be controlledSpecific performance characteristics should be set for each level of detail in the projectReal-time data must be identified to measure achievement against the planIt is important to avoid the tendency to focus on easily collected dataData Collection and ReportingOnce data to monitor has been decided, mechanisms to collect this data must be designedAnalysis is used to transform data into informationA number of questions come up:Should we use special forms?Should data be collected before/after milestones?Should time and cost data be collected at the same time?Data CollectingFrequency countsRaw numbersSubjective numeric ratingsIndicators and surrogatesVerbal characterizationsData AnalysisData analysis techniquesSimple aggregationAveraging, for exampleFitting statistical distribution functions to the dataCurve fittingSignificant differences from the plan should be flaggedData Analysis ExamplesFigures 7-2, 7-3, 7-4Reporting and Report TypesRoutine performance reportsProject status reportsTime/Cost reportsVariance reportsAvoid periodic or routine reportsNot all stakeholders need to receive same informationElectronic media makes it possible to customize information for difference audiencesReports should be timed to allow control to be exercised before completion of the task in questionReport TypesRoutineStatus, progress, and forecast reports ExceptionA report used for special decisions or unexpected situations where affected team members need to be made aware, and the change itself documentedSpecial analysisThe results of a special study which documents a particular opportunity or problem within the project itselfAdditional Report BenefitsThey provide the mutual understanding between stakeholders in a projectThey help communicate the need for coordination among those working on projectThey establish and maintain a communication network for global projectsReports can communicate information about changes to a projectThey help maintain the visibility of the projectThey improve motivationMeetingsMany reports are delivered at meetingsMeetings range from regular, highly formalized and structured sessions to informal, off-the-cuff get-togethersPresentationsQuestion and answer sessionsMeetings must be well run to be effectiveMeeting GuidelinesMeetings should be used primarily for group decision making, not for mere progress reportsDistribute written agenda in advance of meeting to ensure that all attendees are properly prepared for the meetingFor a crisis meeting, restrict discussion to that issueMeeting should take minutesAvoid attributing remarks to individuals in the minutesAvoid excessive formalityIf meeting is held to address specific crisis, restrict meeting to this issue aloneVirtual Reports, Meetings, and Project ManagementThe Internet can be used to communicate and report about the project’s statusIrrespective of the location of the project team membersSoftware programs allow the project manager to utilize the organization’ local area network or intranet Virtual project teams have members spread worldwideEarned ValueThe earned value (EV) of a task or project is the budgeted cost of the work actually doneIt is calculated by multiplying the budgeted cost of the task by the percentage completion of the taskProcess is more difficult than it soundsBudgeted cost of a task is clearPercentage of completion is notThe percent of a task’s budget actually spent is not good indicator of percent completionConventions Used to Estimate Progress on Tasks50-50Task is listed as 50% complete when initiated and the remaining 50% added when task is completed100%The task is 100% complete when finished and zero percent before thatprojects will always appear to be “behind schedule”Ratio of cost (or time) expended to cost (or time) budgetedNeither is an accurate estimator of percentage completionThese conventions are meant for application only to individual tasks on a project, not to the project as a wholeEarned Value ChartFigure 7-5Two Simple Rules for VariancesA negative variance is bad and a positive variance is goodThe spending and schedule variances are calculated as the earned value minus some other measureVariancesCost/Spending varianceEarned value (EV) – actual cost (AC)Schedule varianceEarned value (EV) – planned cost (PV)CPI (cost performance index)Earned value (EV)/actual cost (AC)SPI (schedule performance index)Earned value (EV)/planned cost (PV)ExampleWork on a project was expected to cost $1,500Workers were originally scheduled to finish todayHowever, as of todayActually spent $1,350About 2/3 finsishedVarious Variances VisuallyFigure 7-6a: Positive schedule variance, negative spending varianceb: Negative schedule variance, negative spending variancec: Negative schedule variance, positive spending varianceCalculations for ExampleAdditional Items of InterestEstimated remaining cost to completionETC = (BAC – EV) / CPIETC: estimated cost to completionBAC: budget at completionEV: earned valueCPI: cost performance indexEstimated total cost at completionEAC = ETC + ACEAC: estimated at completionETC: estimated cost to completionAC: actual costAdditional Calculations for ExampleBAC = 1500EV = 1500 (2/3) = 1000CPI = .74 (calculated earlier)AC = 1350ETC = (BAC – EV) / CPI = (1500 – 1000) / .74 = 676EAC = ETC + AC = 676 + 1350 = 2026Microsoft Project Status Report for DVD ProjectTable 7-1Project ControlControl, the act of reducing differences between the plan and actualityIt is the final element in the planning-monitoring-controlling cycleIt is to no avail if actions are not taken when reality deviates significantly from what was plannedControl is a difficult taskIt involves human behaviorProblems are rarely clear cut so the need for change and redirection is also fuzzyPurposes of ControlStewardship of organizational assetsPhysical asset controlHuman resources managementFinancial control through the use of accounting toolsRegulation of results through the alteration of activitiesThis step involves taking action when reality deviates from planIt includes both mechanistic and human elementsPurposes of a Control SystemPrimary purpose is to correct errorsNot to identify and punish the guiltyManagers must realize that the past cannot be changedControl the investment, subject to diminishing returnsConsider impact on creativity and innovationThe control system should employ the lowest degree of hassle consistent with accomplishing its goalsPrimary Mechanisms by which Project Manager Exerts ControlProcess reviewsAn analysis of the process of reaching the project objectivesPersonnel assignmentControl can also be exercised through personnel assignments based on past productivityResource allocationResources are usually allocated to the more productive or important tasks and this can significantly influence the attainment of project resultsCommon MistakesEmphasizing short-run results at the expense of long-run objectivesExcessive control directed to specific objectives can result in sacrificing other project objectivesAcross-the-board cuts in resource allocations tend to reward those who have already overspent or over hired while penalizing the frugal and efficientFocusing on certain items for control can distract the attention of team members from other, equally important itemsControl System ComponentsSensorIts purpose is to measure any aspect that one wishes to controlStandardThe control system must have a standard of items to measure againstComparatorCompares the output of the sensor with the standardDecision makerTo decide if the difference between what is measured and the standard is large enough to warrant attention.EffectorIf some action is required to reduced the difference, the effector must then take actionTypes of Control SystemsCybernetic control systemsA control system that uses all five components of a control systemAlso known as steering controlsGo/no-go controlsA predetermined standard must be met for permission to be granted to continuePost-control (post-performance reviews)Applied after the project has been completedPurpose is to allow future projects to learn from past project experienceTools for ControlSome already coveredVariance analysisTrend projectionsEarned valueCritical ratioIndicates when a task is becoming unacceptableWhen the ratio drops below oneCR = (actual progress/scheduled progress)  (budgeted cost/actual cost)Critical Ratio CalculationsTable 7-3More Tools for ControlControl chartAny measure can be plotted and tracked on a control chartControl limits set by project managerBenchmarkingMake comparisons to “best in class” practices across organizations, or divisions, or even departments within an organizationTwo Sample Control ChartsFigures 7-9 and 7-10Scope Creep and Change ControlMidcourse changes to a project must be controlledCalled scope creepThe later changes are made to a project, the more difficult and costly they becomeAll projects face changeThe best approach is a well-controlled, formal process for changePurpose of Change Control SystemReview all requested changesIdentify all impactsTranslate impacts into performance, schedule, and costEvaluate the benefits and disadvantagesHave appropriate person accept or rejectCommunicate accepted changesEnsure changes are implemented properlyPrepare reportRules for Controlling Scope CreepInclude a change control system in every project contractRequire all changes be introduced by a change orderRequire approval in writing by the client’s agent and senior managementConsult with project manager prior to preparation of change orderAmend master plan to reflect changesCopyrightCopyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.All rights reserved. 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