Quản trị kinh doanh - Decision - Making processes

Decision-Making ProcessesDecision-Making ProcessesGlossaryCase StudyImproving CreativityReflective Thinking ProcessThe Kepner-Tregoe ApproachThe Fishbone TechniqueDecision-Making Processes (continued)BrainstormingSix Thinking HatsIncrementationMixed ScanningTacit BargainingThe Systems ApproachGlossaryBrainstorming—a technique used to generate ideas. It emphasizes brain activity. It can be applied as part of the problem-solving process.Convergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which ideas come together to form a solution.Divergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which many different aspects of an idea are explored. Brainstorming is one technique of divergent thinking.Fishbone Technique—a method of examining cause and effect using a fishbone diagram.GlossaryIncrementalism—the process of making decisions that result in change by increments.Kepner-Tregoe Approach—a variation of the reflective thinking sequence. Its most important contribution is the way in which a group works through the criteria phase, differentiating between the musts and the wants of a solution.Mixed Scanning—a decision-making strategy that combines examining a problem comprehensively (the rational approach) and part by part (the incremental approach).GlossaryReflective Thinking Process—a pattern for small group problem solving that includes six components:1. What is the problem?2. What are its causes and limits?3. What are the criteria for an acceptable solution?4. What are the available solutions?5. What is the best solution?6. How can it be implemented?Tacit Bargaining—bargaining in which communication is incomplete or impossible.Case StudyGeneral Motors1. What do you think are the main problems at GM?2. What would you do if you were CEO of GM?3. How does this case relate to your organization?Improving CreativityCreativity can be divided into two phases of thinking.Divergent thinkingConvergent thinkingImproving CreativityGibson and Hodgetts (1986) identify four different kinds of creativity that may be applied to group problem solving.InnovationSynthesisExtensionDuplicationImproving CreativityLeft- and Right-Brain FunctionsImproving Creativity—Practical TipsThe following are some mental flexibility exercises that should help you improve your creativity. These are adapted from Lawrence Katz and Manning Rubin (1999).1. Use your nondominant hand for brushing teeth, writing, using the remote.2. Vary your usual routine.3. Take a different way to work or class.4. Seek out social stimulation, especially with people you don’t already know.Improving Creativity—Practical TipsThe following . . . (continued) 5. Put your watch on the other wrist. 6. Turn pictures on your desk upside down. 7. Randomly move your wastebaskets, stapler, penholder, etc. 8. Shop at different stores. 9. Vary your usual route through the grocery store.10. Look at magazines written for the opposite sex.Reflective Thinking ProcessThe reflective thinking sequence first proposed by John Dewey (1910) emphasizes the left-brain functions.Define problem.Analyze causes.Identify criteria.Generate solutions.The Kepner-Tregoe ApproachA variation of the reflective thinking sequence has been proposed (Kepner and Tregoe, 1992).The most important contribution seems to be the way in which a group works through the criteria phase.There are certain required elements and other desired element to any solution, called musts and wants by Kepner and Tregoe.The Kepner-Tregoe ApproachSSC Ratings for Competing StatesSource: From Mike Magner. “Geology Blamed for State’s Loss of Atom Smasher,” Ann Arbor News, 11 November 1988, pp. A1, A4.The Fishbone TechniqueThe fishbone technique is so called because its outline resembles the skeleton of a fish.It helps to identify graphically the underlying causes of a problem.BrainstormingThe Fishbone TechniqueBrainstorming—Practical TipsOne way to get at the root causes of problems is to ask “why” five times. For example, some team members don’t follow through on a team’s decision (Carr, 1996, p. 66).Why? Because team members weren’t really committed to the decision in the first place.Why? Because the team didn’t spend enough time exploring the problems in implementing the solution.Why? Because it didn’t want to spend the time.Why? Because it didn’t think the problem was that important.Why? Because no one thought through the team’s mission clearly when it was formed.BrainstormingBrainstorming emphasizes right-brain activity.Rules for brainstorming:Put judgment and evaluation aside temporarily.Turn imagination loose, and start offering the results.Think of as many ideas as you can.Seek combination and improvement.Record all ideas in full view.Evaluate at a later session.Brainstorming—Practical Tips1. While brainstorming, take 3 x 5 index cards and have each member of the team follow this sequence: Say it, write it, toss it (on the table).2. Categorize ideas.3. Classify.4. Prioritize.Six Thinking HatsSix thinking hats is an intuitive way to keep your thoughts focused while problem solving.White hat—emotionally neutral.Red hat—emotions, gut instincts, intuition, and feelings.Black hat—represents careful and analytical thinking.Six Thinking HatsSix thinking hats . . . (continued)Yellow hat—represents sunny, optimistic, and positive thinking.Green hat—represents creativity, new ideas, alternatives, and possibilities.Blue hat—represents coordination, control, and the discipline to know when to use which hat.IncrementalismBraybrooke and Lindblom (1963) argue that numerous decisions concerning governmental policies are arrived at partially as a result of adapting to political pressure rather than as a result of rational analysis.IncrementalismThe term incrementalism refers to the process of making decisions that result in change.Quadrant 1—High understanding/large changeQuadrant 2—High understanding/incremental changeQuadrant 3—Low understanding/incremental changeQuadrant 4—Low understanding/large changeIncrementationModel of Decision-MakingSource: Reprinted with permission of the Free Press, a Division of Macmillan, Inc., from David Braybrooke and Charles C. Lindbloom. A Strategy of Decision, copyright © 1963 by The Free Press of Glencoe.Mixed ScanningEtzioni (1968) offers a decision-making strategy that is a combination of reflective thinking and incrementalism.The ability to maintain a balance between attention to the general and attention to the specific appears to be a major factor in successful problem solving.Tacit BargainingMurnighan (1992) advanced a strategy referred to as “tacit bargaining” or “bargaining in which communication is incomplete or impossible” (pp. 35-36).People can cooperate fairly successfully in some problem-solving situations if it is to their advantage to do so.Mixed-motive situations—when there is simultaneous pressure to cooperate and to compete– imply communication procedures that are distinctly different from those in other problem-solving situations.Tacit BargainingMurnighan (1992) . . . (continued)A good negotiator should learn to:Try to gauge your own strength or weakness.Try to gauge your counterpart’s actual strength or weakness.Surmise whether his perception of his strength or weakness accords with your reality.The Systems ApproachThe decision-making process in most groups can be improved.The systems principle of equifinality is that several alternative methods may be used to reach the solution to the group’s problem.The appropriateness of any method will depend on the demands of the specific situation.The Systems ApproachThe rational problem-solving methods work well in most cases but seem particularly suited to an autonomous group trying to satisfy its own needs while being allowed to do so by a democratic leader.Tacit bargaining seems to be primarily appropriate in mixed-motive situations.The demands of the situation play a great part in suggesting which problem-solving strategy we want to employ.