Quản trị kinh doanh - Leadership and social influence processes

Leadership and Social Influence ProcessesLeadership and Social Influence ProcessesGlossaryCase StudyStatus and PowerLeadershipFollowershipContingency TheoryGroup Norms: Social Influence and ConformityGroup DevelopmentThe Systems ApproachGlossaryAscribed Status—the prestige that goes to a person by virtue of his or her birth.Attained Status—the prestige that goes to a person on the merits of his or her own individual accomplishments.Coercive Power—the power an individual has to give or withhold punishment.Expert Power—our acceptance of influence from those whose expertise we respect.Followership Styles—behavioral tendencies people have toward authority figures (e.g., obedient versus rebellious).GlossaryGroupthink—refers to the tendency of group members to share common assumptions which frequently leads to mistakes.Legitimate Power—the influence we allow others, such as our bosses, to have over us on the basis of their positions.Referent Power—power based on identification with the source of power, e.g., having admiration for someone.Reward Power—the power an individual has to give or withhold rewards.Case StudyDepartment 81011. What mistakes do you think Rita made as a leader in this case?2. What, specifically, would you have done differently if you had been Rita?Status and PowerTypes of StatusSome have theorized that power and status are a function of the ratio of the number of successful power acts to the number of attempts to influence.The success rate and relative status of any individual will vary from group to group.Status and PowerTypes of PowerReward powerCoercive powerLegitimate powerReferent powerExpert powerStatus and PowerPower tends to equate to effectiveness in the eyes of others.Comments in small groups tend to be directed more often (by direction of eye contact) to higher-status group members than to those of lower status.Positive and Negative Uses of PowerMost experts agree that power tactics are amoral.LeadershipAn effective leader is essential for optimal group performance. Historic TrendsTrait TheoryThe physical traits associated with leadership were height, weight, physical attractiveness, and body shape.Circumstances TheoryA person may be an effective leader in one circumstance but perform poorly in a different circumstance.LeadershipHistoric Trends (continued)Function TheoryLeadership consists of certain behaviors, or functions, that groups must have performed.1. Task orientation2. People orientation3. Change-oriented behaviors (Yolk et al, 2002, p. 18)Leadership RolesEarly studies identified three different styles:AutocraticDemocraticLaissez-faireLeadershipHypothetical Relationship Between Weight and LeadershipSource: Copyright © 1971 by Henry R. Martin. Reprinted with permission of Meredith Corporation and Henry Martin.LeadershipLeadership Characteristics Appearing in Three StudiesSource: Reprinted with permission of Jossey-Bass, from James Kouzes and Barry Posner. The Leadership Challenge, copyright © 2002 by Jossey-Bass.LeadershipSource: Adapted from Robert F. Bates. Personality and Interpersonal Behavior. Copyright © 1970 by Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.LeadershipInteraction Process Analysis. Categories of Communicative ActsSource: Based on Robert F. Bates. Interaction Process Analysis (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1950), p. 9; A. Paul Hare. Handbook of Small Group Research (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), p. 66; and Clovis R. Shepherd. Small Groups, Some Sociological Perspectives (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964), p. 30.LeadershipLeadership StylesManz and Sims (2001) reported:1. The quality of group output was better under democratic leadership.2. Democratic leadership took more time than autocratic.3. Member satisfaction was higher under democratic leadership.4. The democratic group had the lowest absenteeism.5. The democratic group fostered more independence.Leadership—Practical TipsHarvey Robbins and Michael Finley (1995, pp. 94-100) offer the following advice on how to be an effective leader:1. Project energy.2. Be involved and involve others.3. Assist evaluation and change for the group.4. Persuade and persevere.5. Look beyond the obvious.6. Maintain perspective.7. Utilize pyramid learning (teach others).Leadership—Practical TipsHarvey Robbins . . . (continued) 8. Target energy on success opportunities. 9. Foster task linkage with others (outside the group).10. Influence cooperative action.11. Support creativity.12. Take the initiative.13. Eschew the negative.14. Never be satisfied (seek continuous improvement).LeadershipSuperLeadersA SuperLeader who gets a lot of other people involved is said to develop SuperTeams.Manz and Neck (1999) have proposed the idea of self-leadership:We are each responsible for our own choices.The challenge is to channel these choices in a desirable direction.Leadership—Practical TipsHenry Simms, Jr. and Charles Manz set forth the following guidelines for the practice of self-leadership in their book The New SuperLeadership (2001, p. 34).Helping others to master a self-leadership system that is best suited to their own unique qualities is the ultimate goal of SuperLeadership.Effective self-leadership combines and balances self-discipline, natural enjoyment and motivation, and effective thinking habits and patterns.Learning and development of self-leadership skills have considerable value that is worth short-term costs.Leadership—Practical TipsHenry Simms, Jr. . . . (continued)Facilitating the development of others’ confidence in their self-leadership capability is an important foundation for effective self-leadership practice.With patience and persistence, almost everyone can become an effective self-leader and be of benefit to their organizations.Self-leadership is a logical and effective basis for influence in a civilized, educated world and will provide the best outcomes over the long run.Self-leadership is an ethically sound basis for organizational leadership as long as it is pursued with the resulting benefits to the individual as a first priority.FollowershipFollowership StylesDependentCounterdependentIndependentFollowershipLeadership and Followership StylesContingency TheoryFiedler and Chemers (1974) and Potter and Fiedler (1993) argue that a combination of three separate factors determines a leader’s effectiveness:Leader-member relationsTask structurePosition powerContingency TheoryResearchers stress the following functions:Task-oriented behaviorPeople-oriented, or relationship, behaviorThe readiness of followersContingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Leadership ModelSource: From Fiedler and Chemers. Leadership and Effective Management (Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman, 1974), p. 80. Copyright © 1974 by Scott, Foresman & Co. Reprinted by permission of the author.Contingency TheoryHershey and Blanchard’s Contingency Model of LeadershipSource: From Hershey, Blanchard, and Johnson, Management of Organizational Behavior, 8th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 2001), p. 182.Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformityWood, Phillips, and Pedersen (1986) define norms as “standardized patterns of belief, attitude, communication and behavior within groups.”Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformityThe following guidelines help groups arrive at more creative solutions about 75 percent of the time (Leonard and Swaps, 1999, p. 66).Avoid changing your mind only to avoid conflict and to reach agreement and harmony.Withstand pressures to yield, which have on objective or logically sound foundation.View differences of opinion as both natural and helpful.Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformityConformity: Research and ApplicationsThe results of several studies are summarized below.1. Group pressure does, indeed, produce conformity.2. Yielding can be induced even in attitudes having personal relevance.3. Yielding is greater on difficult decisions than on easy ones.4. There are large differences in the amounts of yielding for different individuals.5. When subjects are tested again without the group pressure, a major part of the original yielding disappears.Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformityConformity: Research and ApplicationsIndividual personal factors have been studied in relation to conformity.1. Conformists are less intelligent.2. Conformists are lower in ego strength and in their ability to work in stress situations.3. Conformists tend toward feeling of personal inferiority and inadequacy.4. Conformists show an intense preoccupation with other people.5. Conformists express attitudes and values of a more conventional nature than nonyielders.Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformityConformity: Research and ApplicationsLipman-Blumen and Leavitt (1999) offer a qualitative anlaysis of the four stages of conformity pressure.ReasonSeductionCoercionIsolationGroup Norms: Social Influence and ConformityConformity: Research and ApplicationsGroupthink tends to occur when several factors are operating at once.Type I: Overestimation of the group—its power and moralityType II: Closed-mindednessType III: Pressures toward uniformityGroup Norms: Social Influence and Conformity Theoretical Curves of Communications from Strong Rejectors, Mild Rejectors, and Four Nonrejectors to the Deviant in the Four Experimental Conditions.Group Norms: Social Influence and ConformitySource: From Schacter. “Deviation, rejection, and communication.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 46:202. American Psychological Association, copyright © 1951.Group DevelopmentGroup development seems to be partly the result of individual psychological needs and partly the result of the social influences manifested in the group.Phase 1 (orientation)Seems to be a period in which group members simply try to break the ice and begin to find out enough about one another to have some common basis for functioning.Phase 2 (conflict)Frequently characterized by conflict of one kind or another.Group DevelopmentGroup development . . . (continued)Phase 3 (emergence)Involves a resolution of the conflict experienced in Phase 2.Phase 4 (reinforcement)The phase of maximum productivity and consensus.Group DevelopmentSummary of Literature on Group PhasesThe Systems ApproachHigh-status individuals tend to have more power.The leadership style that would be appropriate in one situation with one set of followers may not be the most appropriate in a different situation with a different set of followers.The Systems ApproachConformity pressure differs depending on the type of group, the personalities of the group members, and a number of other factors.Groups go through fairly common phases, depending on the type of group.The systems theory approach suggests that these phases are simply parts of a recurring cycle of events that probably occur during a single meeting and tend to be repeated throughout the group’s lifetime.