Tài liệu môn PR truyền thông - Chapter 16: Ethics and other formal controls

The Dynamics ofMass CommunicationJoseph R. DominickSeventh EditionPart 5Regulation ofthe Mass MediaChapter 16Ethics and OtherFormal ControlsPERSONAL ETHICSThe media is regulated not only formally (by laws and rules) but also informally by ethical and professional performance codes.Ethics are rules of conduct or principles of morality that point us toward the right or best way to act in a situation, and these principles can provide a framework for analyzing what is proper in examining choices and justifying our actions. There are many ethical systems in use throughout the world; we’ll look at five systems with roots in Western civilization.Five Ethical Systems Principle of the Golden MeanMoral values lies between two extremes. Moderation, says Aristotle, is the key. The belief suggests that the proper way of behaving lies between doing too much and doing too littleThe Categorical ImperativeWhat’s right for one is right for all, says Kant. The correctness of our behavior is measured according to the rules we want to see universally applied. “Categorical” means unconditional—no extenuating circumstances and no exceptions. Right is right (based on examining our own conscience) and should be done, no matter what the circumstances.Five Ethical Systems Principle of UtilityUtilitarianism is based on the idea of doing the greatest good for the greatest number, (Bentham and Mill). Utilitarians ask how much good is done, and how much evil is avoided, by different courses of behaviorVeil of IgnoranceJustice is blind, and only emerges when we treat everyone without social differentiations, where each person is treated as an equal member of society as a whole (John Rawls).Five Ethical Systems Principle of Self-DeterminationAssociated with Judeo-Christian ethics, this system says that human beings have value apart from any circumstances. As such, we should not treat people as a means to an end, or, in a more familiar phrase, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” Model for Making Individual Ethical DecisionsDefinitions  Values  Principles  Loyalties  ActionConsider four things about a situation before taking action:Define the situation. What are the facts, and what are our alternative possible actions?What values are involved? Which values are more relevant to deciding a course of action?What ethical principles apply? Many other systems are available besides these fiveWhere do our loyalties lie? To whom do we owe our highest moral duty and obligation?Acculturation Simply defined, acculturation in a media context is the tendency of media professionals to accept the ideas, attitudes, and opinions of the group they cover or with whom they have significant contact. While not inherently bad, it can cause concern when it has the potential to affect journalistic judgment.Performance Codes Print MediaIn 1923, the American Society of Newspaper Editors adopted seven Canons of Journalism: responsibility freedom of the press decency accuracy impartiality fair play independencePerformance Codes (Con’t)Codes can be prescriptive (telling us what we should do) rather than proscriptive (telling us what we should avoid). For example, the Society of Professional Journalists adopted this prescriptive code that centers on four main principles:See the truth and report itMinimize harmAct independentlyBe accountableMost professional journalism organizations have adopted ethical codes, and all share one thing in common: none has developed procedures to enforce those codes.Performance Codes (Con’t)BroadcastingThough a few broadcast organizations have attempted to codify broadcasting and programming ethical systems, none has survived with any specificity or self-enforceability.Motion Pictures MPPDA sets first film code in the 1920s; lasts over 25 years original code replaced with voluntary movie rating system of G, PG, PG-13, R, and NC-17 adopted by Motion Picture Association of America System depends on cooperation from film makers, theater owners, and movie-going public for enforcement.  Gives producers free hand to do whatever, as long as they realize that what they do may restrict their potential audience sizeInternal ControlsTelevision Networks’ Standards and PracticesSince 1950s, TV networks maintained large “Standards and Practices” departments which made thousands of decisions on the acceptability of dialog, plot lines, and visual portrayals.Since 1980s, staff cutbacks, S&P departments are smaller, handle fewer programs, and make far less content decisions. Networks now rely on program producers to follow guidelines of good taste and decorum. Most local stations also have a policy book which spells out station’s philosophy and standards on what practices are or are not acceptable.Internal Controls (Con’t)Newspapers and Magazines have two forms of policies: operating policies: cover everyday problems and situations found in newspaper operations such as freebies, deceptive practices, junkets, and outside jobseditorial policies: the guidelines a paper follows to persuade the public on certain issues or to achieve specific goalsBoosterism is a pro-community philosophy that sometimes can cause unpleasant news to go unreported; this practice continues to be a problem with some area newspapers.Self-Criticism: Some papers employ an ombudsperson (a person who independently handles and reports on reader complaints about the paper), but the practice is still rare.Internal Controls (Con’t)Self-Regulation in AdvertisingThe National Advertising Review Council is responsible for sustaining high standards of truth and accuracy in advertising; it’s composed of two divisions:The National Advertising Division handles complaints about ads from consumers and competitors. If a complaint cannot be resolved on this level, it’s then submitted to . . .The National Advertising Review Board for appeal. If nothing works at this level—a rarity—the complaint can be forwarded to the Federal Trade CommissionOutside InfluencesEconomic PressuresIn commercial media, the loss—or threat of loss—of revenue can be an important consideration in controlling what gets filmed, published, or broadcast.Pressure from Advertisers The more a medium depends on ad revenues, the more susceptible it is to advertising pressures, and when the economy is bad, the influence of advertisers can be great. Business Policies Trading news coverage for ad space can be an issue, and much of the problem lies is in the fact that this “trade” is often invisible to media consumersOutside Influences (Con’t)Pressure Groups Various audience segments can band together and try to exert pressure on the media in economic ways (boycotts), or through bad publicity, or even through legal pressures (civil suits or attempts to revoke licenses). Press Councils A press council is an independent agency who monitors the performance of the media on a day-to-day basis, similar to a group-oriented ombudsperson.Education Teaching ethical media practices in the nation’s universities may have a direct though long-term impact on future media performance.End of Chapter 16Ethics and OtherFormal Controls