Tâm lý học - Chapter 5: Cognitive development in infancy

Life-Span Development Thirteenth EditionChapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1Cognitive ProcessesSchemes: actions or mental representations that organize knowledgeBehavioral schemes (physical activities) characterize infancyConsist of simple actions that can be performed on objects such as sucking and graspingMental schemes (cognitive activities) develop in childhoodInclude strategies and plans for solving problems©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development2Cognitive ProcessesAssimilation: occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiencesAccommodation: occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development3Cognitive ProcessesOrganization: the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order systemEquilibration and Stages of Development:Equilibration: the mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the nextAccording to Piaget, individuals go through four stages of developmentCognition is qualitatively different from one stage to another©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development4The Sensorimotor Stage: infant cognitive development lasting from birth to 2 yearsInfants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motoric actionsDivided into six substages©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development5©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant DevelopmentSensorimotor Substages6The Sensorimotor StageObject Permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touchedDeveloped by the end of the sensorimotor periodStudied by watching infant’s reaction when an interesting object disappears©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development7©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant DevelopmentObject Permanence8©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Theory of Infant DevelopmentObject Permanence9Conditioning:Classical and operant conditioning vs. information retentionAttention: the focusing of mental resources on select informationOrienting/investigative processSustained attention©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing10AttentionHabituation and DishabituationInfants’ attention is strongly governed by novelty and habituationHabituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentationsDishabituation: increased responsiveness after a change in stimulationCan help parents interact effectively with infants©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing11AttentionJoint Attention: individuals focus on the same object or eventRequires an ability to track another’s behaviorOne person directs another’s attentionReciprocal interactionIncreases infants’ ability to learn from other people©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing12Memory: retention of information over timeEncoding: the process by which information gets into memoryImplicit memory: memory without conscious recollectionExplicit memory: conscious memory of facts and experiencesInfantile or childhood amnesia: inability to recall memories of events that occurred before 3 years of age©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing13Imitation:Meltzoff: infants’ imitative abilities are biologically based and are characterized by flexibility and adaptabilityDeferred Imitation: imitation that occurs after a time delay of hours or daysPiaget: deferred imitation does not occur until about 18 monthsMeltzoff: research suggests it can occur as early as 9 months©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing14Concept Formation and CategorizationCategories: groups of objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common propertiesConcepts: ideas about what categories representPerceptual categorization: based on similar perceptual features of objectsConceptual categorization: by 7–9 months, infants can categorize objects even though they are perceptually similar©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing15Measures of Infant DevelopmentGesell Test measures four categories of behavior: motor, language, adaptive, and personal–socialBayley Scales of Infant Development measures five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptiveFagan Test of Infant Intelligence evaluates an infant’s ability to process information ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences and Assessment16Predicting IntelligenceInfant tests contain items related to perceptual-motor development and include measures of social interaction rather than verbal ability©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences and Assessment17Language: a form of communication – whether spoken, written, or signed – that is based on a system of symbols. Consists of words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them Infinite Generativity: the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development18©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development19How Language DevelopsRecognizing language soundsInfants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the languageBabbling and other vocalizationsSequence of soundsCryingCooing Babbling©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development20How Language DevelopsGestures are used by about 8 to 12 monthsPointing is considered an important index of the social aspect of languageFirst words:Children understand first words earlier than they speak themA child understands about 50 words by age 13 months and 200 words by 2 years of age©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development21©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development22How Language DevelopsFirst WordsOverextension: tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaningUnderextension: tendency to apply a word too narrowlyTwo-Word UtterancesOccur at about 18–24 monthsChild relies on gesture, tone, and contextTelegraphic speech: use of short and precise words without grammatical markers©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development23©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Milestones in Infancy24Biological and Environmental InfluencesBiological Influences:Evolution of nervous system and vocal apparatusParticular brain regions used for language:Broca’s area: language productionWernicke’s area: language comprehensionLanguage Acquisition Device (LAD; Noam Chomsky): theory that a biological endowment enables children to detect certain features and rules of language©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development25©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development26Biological and Environmental InfluencesEnvironmental Influences:Behaviorists claim language is a complex learned skill acquired through responses and reinforcementsNo longer considered a viable explanation of how children acquire languageInteraction view (Tomasello): children learn language in specific contextsChildren’s vocabulary is linked to family socioeconomic status and the type of talk parents direct toward their children©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development27©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development28Biological and Environmental InfluencesEnvironmental Influences:Child-Directed Speech: language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentencesCaptures infant’s attention and maintains communication©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development29Biological and Environmental InfluencesThree strategies to enhance child’s acquisition of language:Recasting: rephrasing something the child has said Expanding state: repeating what the child has said but in correct structure Labeling: identifying the names of objectsAn Interactionist ViewBiology and experience contribute to language development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development30