Xã hội học - Data sources and methods of data collection

Data Sources and Methods of Data Collection Samuel K. Frimpong (Ph.D.)Outline presentationSecondary Data Sources; types of secondary data; locating secondary data; advantages and disadvantages of secondary data and evaluating secondary dataCollecting primary data through observations; participant observation and structured observationCollecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviewsCollecting primary data using questionnairesTypes of dataPrimary data refers to data that is freshly collected for achieving the purpose of the current study while Secondary Data refers to data which was originally collected for a different purpose but it is being used for another purpose.Choice of data typeThe decision to use Primary or secondary data may be based on: AvailabilityAccessibilitySuitabilityAdequacyCost and benefitsWhat is secondary data?Data that have already been collected for some other purposeBoth raw data and published summaries.payroll details, copies of letters, minutes of meetings and accounts of sales of goods or servicesSecondary data could be both quantitative and qualitative dataExamples?It could be raw data, where there has been little if any processing, or compiled data that have received some form of selection or summarisingTypes of secondary dataDocumentary dataSurvey-based dataData compiled from multiple sourcesDocumentary secondary data Documentary secondary data include Written materials such as notices Correspondence (including emails)Minutes of meetingsReports to shareholdersDiariesTranscripts of speeches and administrative and public recordsIt can also include books, journal and magazine articles and newspapers.Documentary secondary data also include non-written materials such as voice and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films and television programmesSurvey-based secondary data Survey-based secondary data refers to data collected using a survey strategy, usually by questionnaires that have already been analyzed for their original purpose.Such data normally refer to organizations, people or households.Survey-based secondary data comes in the following forms: Censuses Continuous/regular surveys eg. GLSSAd hoc surveys are usually one-off surveys and are far more specific in their subject matter Forms of Survey-based secondary data Censuses are usually carries out by governments and are unique because participation is obligatory. They provide very good coverage of the population survey.Continuous and regular surveys are those surveys, excluding censuses that are repeated over time.Ad hoc surveys are usually one-off surveys and are far more specific in their subject matter. They include data from questionnaires that have been undertaken by independent researchers as well as interviews undertaken by organizations and governmentMultiple-source secondary dataMultiple-source secondary data can be based entirely on documentary or on survey secondary data, or can be an amalgam of the twoThe key factor is that different data sets have been combined to form another data set prior to your accessing the dataGhana Club 100 companies Various shares price listings for different stock markets in the financial pages of quality newspapersFinding relevant secondary dataFinding relevant secondary data has two interlinked stages:establishing that the sort of data you require are likely to be available as secondarylocating the precise data you require.The availability of secondary dataAs part of your literature review you will have already read books and journal articles on your chosen topicThese books and articles should contain full references to the sources of the dataQuality national newspapers are also often a good source as they often report summary findings of recent government reportsData archive cataloguesFinding relevant secondary dataFinding secondary dataLocating published secondary data that are likely to be held by libraries or secondary data held in archives is relatively straightforwardData that are held by organisations are more difficult to locateGo to the manager in charge of the unit who could also be a gatekeeper/helpData on the InternetAdvantages of secondary dataIt may have fewer resource requirementsSaving in resources, in particular your time and money it is much less expensive to use secondary data than to collect the data yourselfMore likely to be of higher-quality data than could be obtained by collecting your own Longitudinal studies may be feasibleComparative research may also be possible if comparable data are available.It can be useful to compare data that you have collected with secondary dataSecondary data generally provide a source of data that is both permanent and available in a form that may be checked relatively easily by othersDisadvantages of secondary dataMay be collected for a purpose that does not match your needAccess may be difficult or costlyAggregations and definitions may be unsuitableAggregations, while meeting the requirements of the original research, may not be quite so suitable for your researchThe definitions of data variables may not be the most appropriate for your research question(s) or objectivesNo real control over data qualityInitial purpose may affect how data are presentedEvaluation of secondary dataEvaluation should include both reliability and any likely measurement bias. Measurement reliability: Secondary data that fail to provide you with the information that you need to answer your research question(s) or meet your objectives will result in invalid answersCoverage and unmeasured variables: You need to be sure that the secondary data cover the population about which you need dataFor the time period you need, Contain data variables that will enable you to answer your research question(s) and to meet your objectivesYou can then make a judgement on the basis of the costs and benefits of using the data in comparison with alternative sources.Evaluation of secondary dataCollecting primary data through observationsTwo forms of observation Participant observationStructured observationPARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONParticipant observation is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom s/he is studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of ‘what is going on’ in a wide range of social settingsCollecting primary data through observations Conti.Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterised by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis.Types of interviewStructured interviewsSemi-structured interviewsUnstructured or in-depth interviewsTypes of interviewStructured interviews: use questionnaires based on a predetermined and ‘standardised’ or identical set of questions Semi-structured and in-depth (unstructured) interviews are ‘nonstandardised’.These are often referred to as ‘qualitative research interviews’Semi-structured interviews: The researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interviewYou may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organisational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic.The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation.Additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organisations.Types of interviewUnstructured interviews are informalYou would use these to explore in depth a general area in which you are interested.QuestionnaireQuestionnaire is a prepared set of questions (or measures) to which respondents or interviewers record answers. Using questionnaire, the same set of questions are expected to answered by all the respondents.The design of the questionnaire will affect the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data you collect. To maximize response rate, reliability and validity:Carefully design each questionClearly layout the questionnaire formExplain the purpose of the questionnairePilot testingCarefully plan and administered the questionnaireTypes of QuestionnairesSelf-administeredInternet-mediated questionnairePostal questionnaireDelivery and collection questionnaireInterviewer-administeredTelephone questionnaireStructured interviewDesigning QuestionnairesThe design of each question should be determine by the data you need to collect. When designing each questions, researchers do one of three things:Adopt questions used in other questionnairesAdapt questions used in other questionnairesDevelop their own questionsSteps in questionnaire designStep 1: Initial ConsiderationsStep 2: Clarification of ConceptsStep 3: Typology of a QuestionnaireStep 4: Pre-testing of a QuestionnaireStep 5: Administering a Questionnaire