Xã hội học - Formulating the research design

Formulating the Research DesignSamuel K. Frimpong (Ph.D.)Outline presentationPurpose of the research designDesign StrategiesMultiple methods choices—combining qualitative and quantitative techniques and proceduresTime horizonsCredibility of research findingsEthics of research designSelecting samples—probability and non-probability techniquesResearch Design and MethodsA Research Design provides the plans and procedures for research that span a number of decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis.Choice of research design reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions of the research process.A Research Method is simply a technique for collecting data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about the type of instruments or techniques to be used. Importance of Research DesignA good research design should help the researcher to anticipate what it will take to complete the research justifiably and credibly.Purpose of ResearchThe classification of research design based on purpose is mostly in threefoldExploratory Descriptive ExplanatoryExploratory DesignAn exploratory study is a valuable means of finding out ‘what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’ (Robson 2002:59)Particularly useful when one wishes to clarify understanding of a problem or if there is no clarity on the nature of the problemThere are three principal ways of conducting exploratory research:a search of the literature;interviewing ‘experts’ in the subjectconducting focus group interviews.A key advantage is that it is flexible and adaptable to changeFocus is initially broad and becomes progressively narrower as the research progresses.Descriptive DesignDescriptive research seeks ‘to portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations’ (Robson 2002:59)It may be an extension of, or a forerunner to, a piece of exploratory research or, more often, a piece of explanatory researchIt should be thought of as a means to an end rather than an end in itselfExplanatory DesignStudies based on establishing causal relationships between variablesAnalytical: often extends the descriptive to suggest or explain why or how something happensPredictive: aims at speculating intelligently on future possibilities based on evidence of cause and effectResearch StrategiesEach strategy can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research (Yin 2003).ExperimentSurveyCase studyAction researchGrounded theoryEthnographyArchival research.ExperimentExperiment is a form of research that owes much to the natural sciences, although it features strongly in much social science research, particularly psychologyThe simplest experiments are concerned with whether there is a link between two variables.More complex experiments also consider the size of the change and the relative importance of two or more independent variablesExperiments therefore tend to be used in exploratory and explanatory research to answer ‘how’ and ‘why’ questionsSurveyThe survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach and is most frequently used to answer WHO, WHAT, WHERE, HOW MUCH AND HOW MANY questions.Tends to be used for exploratory and descriptive researchOften obtained by using a questionnaire administered to a sampleThe survey strategy allows you to collect quantitative data which you can analyse quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statisticsThe data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for particular relationships between variables and to produce models of these relationshipsCase studyCase study is ‘a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence’ (Robson, 2002:178)Within a case study, the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and the context within which it is being studied are not clearly evidentThe case study strategy particularly useful in eliciting answers to the question ‘why?’ as well as the ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ questions, although ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ questions tend to be more the concern of the survey strategy. The case study strategy is most often used in explanatory and exploratory researchThe data collection techniques employed may be various and are likely to be used in combination.Gives room to TRIANGULATION of data setAction ResearchConcerned with the resolution of organisational issuesInvolvement of practitioners in a collaborative partnership with researchers or external consultantsThe researcher is part of the organisation within which the research is taking placeThe findings of action research should have implications beyond the immediate project or should inform other contextsAction research differs from other research strategies because of its explicit focus on action, in particular promoting change within the organisationGrounded theoryGrounded theory is often thought of as coming very close to inductive approach, Aims at building a theoryData collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical frameworkTheory is developed from data generated by a series of observations.Data collected leads to the generation of predictions which are then tested in further observations that may confirm, or otherwise, the predictionsEthnography Ethnography is rooted in the inductive approach. Has its origins from the field of anthropologyThe purpose is to describe and explain the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they would describe and explain it.The researcher immerses him/herself in the phenomenon being observedThe research process needs to be flexible and responsive to change since the researcher will constantly be developing new patterns of thought about what is being observed.The phenomenon is observed as it continue to unfoldArchival researchArchival research makes use of administrative records and documents as the principal source of data.An archival research strategy allows research questions which focus upon the past and changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatoryMultiple methods choices – combining datacollection techniques and analysis proceduresSingle research study may use quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures in combination as well as use primary and secondary dataMixed methods approach is the general term for when both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a research designMultiple methods choices – combining datacollection techniques and analysis procedures Cont.Reasons for choosing mixed methods approachesTriangulation Complementarity GeneralityAid interpretationStudy different aspects Solving a puzzle when results of initial method can not be satisfactorily explainedTime horizonsCross-sectional studiesstudy of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time.It often employ the survey strategyLongitudinal studiesThe main strength of longitudinal research is the capacity that it has to study change and development.The credibility of research findingsReliability and Validity – Related to quantitative ResearchReliability refers to the extent to which your data collection techniques or analysis procedures will yield consistent findingsWill the measures yield the same results on other occasions?Will similar observations be reached by other observers?Is there transparency in how sense was made from the raw data?The credibility of research findingsValidity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about. Types of validityMeasurement (or construct) validity – do measures reflect concepts?Internal validity – are causal relations between variables real?External validity – sometimes referred to as generalisability. Can results be generalized beyond the research setting? Ecological validity – are findings applicable to everyday life?Alternative criteria in qualitative researchTrustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) :Credibility, parallels internal validity - i.e. how believable are the findings?Transferability, parallels external validity - i.e. do the findings apply to other contexts?Dependability, parallels reliability - i.e. are the findings likely to apply at other times?Confirmability, parallels objectivity - i.e. has the investigator allowed his or her values to intrude to a high degree?Relevance (Hammersley 1992) :Importance of a topic in its field Contribution to the literature in that field