Xã hội học - Research philosophies and ethics of research

Research Philosophies and Ethics of ResearchSamuel K. Frimpong (Ph.D.)Outline presentationIntroduction Ontology: Objectivism; Subjectivism and PragmatismEpistemology: Positivism; Realism and InterpretivismAxiology and PragmatismEthics of ResearchResearch Philosophy or WorldviewsWorldview: ‘a basic set of beliefs that guide action’ (Guba, 1990, p. 17)Worldviews have been referred to as:paradigms (Lincoln & Guba, 2000)epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998); or Broadly conceived research methodologies (Neuman, 2000)What research philosophy?Research philosophy underpins research strategy and the methods chosen as part of the strategyThe influence of RP is felt in the context of the researcher’s particular view of the relationship between knowledge and the process by which it is developedThe researcher who is concerned with facts, such as the resources needed in a business establishment, is likely to have a very different view on the way research should be conducted from the researcher concerned with the feelings and attitudes of the workers towards their managers in that same business establishmentCan we say one research philosophy is better than the other? Ways of thinking about research philosophy?Two major ways of thinking about research philosophy: Ontology EpistemologyThese inform the research strategy or methodologyResearch Ontology DefinedOntology is concerned with the nature of realityIt is ways of constructing reality, “how things really are” and “how things really work” (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998, p. 201)What assumptions do we make about the way in which the world works?Two aspects of ontology: Objectivism SubjectivismOntologyObjectivism: Portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors concerned with their existence.Social entities exist in reality external to social actors.Subjectivism: Holds the view that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence.Focuses on understanding the meanings that individuals attach to social phenomenaOften associated with the term, constructionism or social constructionismSubjectivism Cont’dIt follows from the interpretivist philosophy that it is necessary to explore the subjective meanings motivating the actions of social actors in order for the researcher to be able to understand these actions Social constructionism views reality as being socially constructedWhat research is Epistemology?Concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge or reality in a field of studyDifferent forms of knowledge of that reality, what nature of relationship exists between the inquirer and the inquired? How do we know?What research is Epistemology?Positivism - Quantitative ~ discovery of the laws that govern behaviorWorking in the tradition of the natural scientistConstructivist - Qualitative ~ understandings from an insider perspectiveCritical - Postmodern ~ Investigate and expose the power relationshipsPragmatic - interventions, interactions and their effect in multiple contextsThe positivist/postpositivist worldviewSometimes called scientific method, empirical science, or postpositivist and holds true more for quantitative research.It is reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce ideas into a small, discrete set of ideas to test, such as the variables that comprise hypothesis and research questionsKnowledge from positivism lens is based on careful observation and measurement of the objective reality that exists ‘out there’ in the world. Typical Positivist research QuestionWhat?How much?Relationship between? Or Causes this effect?Best answered with numerical precisionOften formulated as hypothesesTenets of PositivistReliability: Same results different times, different researchersValidity: results accurately measure and reliably answer research questions.Interpretivist or Constructivist ParadigmInterpretivism advocates that it is necessary for the researcher to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors.Understandings from an insider perspectiveGenerally answer the question ‘why’ rather then ‘what’, ‘when’ or ‘how much’?How does subject understand ?What is the “lived experience”?What meaning does the artifact or intervention have?Can we say one research philosophy is better than the other? RealismWhat the senses show us as reality is the truthObjects have an existence independent of the human mind.The philosophy of realism is that there is a reality quite independent of the mindIt is similar to positivism in that it assumes a scientific approach to the development of knowledgeThis assumption underpins the collection of data and the understanding of those data.Two Types of RealismDirect realism says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accuratelyCritical realists argue that what we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things directly. Critical realists point out how often our senses deceive usAxiologyWhat roles do our values play in our research choices?The role that our own values play in all stages of the research process is of great significance in determining the credibility of the research resultsPragmatismPragmatism argues that the most important determinant of the epistemology, ontology and axiology you adopt is the research question One may be more appropriate than the other for answering particular questionsSummaryEthical Issues in researchResearch EthicsSocial scientist inevitably interact with people. Therefore, there is the need to:recognize that the research procedures involve people who deserve as much respect for their well-being as we do for ourselves;give attention to their rational concerns and emotional needs which in one way or the other will shape their responses to our actions.What is Ethics in research?It addresses the application of moral principles and/or ethical standards to human actions within the research process. How to determine an (Un)ethical actionHas the subject/respondent been subjected to unreasonable stress or risk without his or her knowledge? Is it possible to restore the subject to his or her original condition?Basic ethical principlesThree basic principles established by the National Commission for the protection of Human subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural Research in the USARespect for persons: Treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy;Beneficence: Minimizing possible harms and maximizing benefits; andJustice: Distributing benefits and risks of research fairly. These broad principles have been translated into specific regulations.Other ethical principlesAchieving Valid Results: Knowledge is the foundation of human progress and therefore researchers should be committed to achieving valid results that can objectively represent the true pictureHonesty and Openness: The scientific concern for validity also requires that scientists be open in disclosing their methods and honest in presenting their findings. Protecting research participantsEthical guidelines emphasized by most professional social science organizations concerning the treatment of human subjects include: Research should cause no harm to subjects.Participation in research should be voluntary, and therefore subjects must give their informed consent to participate in the research.Researchers should fully disclose their identity.Anonymity or confidentiality must be maintained for individual research participants unless it is voluntarily and explicitly waived.Benefits from a research project should outweigh any foreseeable risks.