Conclusion and recommendations
The study compares the major international
container terminals in Vietnam and Myanmar, using
the framework of five factor groups, i.e. port
infrastructure, port connectivity, port management,
port operation and port charge. The study has come up
with a comparative report to provide a better
understanding about the port system in Myanmar.
This could benefit the relevant stakeholders in
maritime industries, such as the government, port
cities, port operators, shipping lines in Myanmar,
Vietnam and connecting countries by providing
insights of the situation in both countries for their
decision-making. In the following part, we give the
recommendation for maritime stakeholders in
Myanmar in developing seaport systems through the
lessons learnt from Vietnam.
The comparison shows that Myanmar ports are
lagging behind with poor infrastructure, limited
maritime connectivity, low productivity in port
operation despite they have the preferable port charge,
fast customs clearance process, low accident rate and
the private participation in the port governance model.
The weakness of port operation in Myanmar terminals
includes low handling productivity, high ship
turnaround, which lead to their low total throughput.
In order to develop the international port system,
Myanmar government needs to pay more attention in
following issues. First, they need to upgrade the port
infrastructure in their terminals and utilize better the
current resource, including equipment and land uses.
In order to improve the productivity at ports,
Myanmar needs to eliminate overlapped paperwork
systems to replace with single window port online
system. They might seek for foreign investments,
financial and technology aids for port developments.
Finally, the port managers in Myanmar need to seek
for more international collaboration in the maritime
sector to improve their port connectivity, which will
improve the maritime traffic and strengthen their
ports’ competitiveness.
This paper also points out the current issues of
Vietnamese container terminals in operation. The
high maritime accident rate requires more attention of
port managers in port safety. The long customs
clearance procedure would severely influence the port
competitiveness and unnecessarily increase the total
logistics cost and time for shippers. They could be
explained by the fact that Vietnamese seaports are
facing huge maritime traffic which create the
problems in congestion, safety and customs
procedures. From the perspective of Myanmar
maritime stakeholders, they should foresee these
issues when the maritime traffic grows and have better
preparation for such development.
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SỐ 64 (11-2020)
KHOA HỌC - CÔNG NGHỆ
71
TẠP CHÍ ISSN: 1859-316X
KHOA HỌC CÔNG NGHỆ HÀNG HẢI
JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MYANMAR AND VIETNAM
INTERNATIONAL CONTAINER TERMINALS
PHÂN TÍCH SO SÁNH CÁC BẾN CẢNG CONTAINER QUỐC TẾ CỦA
MYANMAR VÀ VIỆT NAM
NGUYEN CANH LAM*, HTUN THANT ZAW
International School of Education, Vietnam Maritime University
*Email: nguyencanhlam@vimaru.edu.vn
Abstract
Recently, the rapid growth of international and
intra-ASEAN trade is going hand in hand with the
increase of maritime freight in the regional
countries. This put an urge requirement in port
development with countries in ASEAN as to
release the bottleneck of global logistics. This
study aims at identifying the characteristics of
Myanmar container terminals through a
comparative analysis with Vietnamese seaports,
which benefit stakeholders in both countries and
other maritime nations in the region. From a
literature review, we define the comparison
framework of five dimensions, i.e. port
infrastructure, port connectivity, port
management, port operation and port charge. The
conclusion and recommendation for container
port development in are given accordingly from
the perspective stakeholders in Myanmar.
Keywords: Seaport, comparative analysis,
Vietnam, Myanmar, terminal..
Tóm tắt
Hiện nay, sự phát triển nhanh chóng của thương
mại quốc tế và trong khu vực Đông Nam Á đồng
hành cùng với sự tăng trưởng về vận tải biển của
các nước trong khu vực. Điều này đặt ra yêu cầu
bức thiết cho các nước trong Đông Nam Á về việc
phát triển cảng biển nhằm giải phóng các nút thắt
của logistics toàn cầu. Nghiên cứu này nhằm mục
đích xác định, phân tích các đặc tính của các cảng
container quốc tế của Myamar thông qua phân
tích so sánh với cảng biển Việt Nam và giúp ích
cho các bên liên quan của hai quốc gia này và các
quốc gia khác trong khu vực. Từ nghiên cứu cơ sở
lý luận, chúng tôi xác định khung lý thuyết so sánh
gồm 5 yếu tố, bao gồm cơ sở hạ tầng cảng, kết nối
cảng biển, quản lý cảng, khai thác cảng và cảng
phí. Từ phân tích so sánh, bài báo đưa ra kết luận
và khuyến nghị cho việc phát triển cảng container
quốc tế ở Myanmar.
Từ khóa: Cảng biển, phân tích so sánh, Việt Nam,
Myanmar, bến cảng.
1. Introduction
According to Arbia and Sami [1], a seaport is a
multidimensional system with the combination of
economical purpose, infrastructure system,
geographical plot and trade. The seaport system in a
country plays a vital role in the national economy as
it facilitates the cargo movement of import and export
flow [2]. Within the transport network, seaports are
normally seen as the bottlenecks since they are the
concentration point of numerous transport links with
huge traffic by roadway, railway and inland
waterway. As the result of increasing globalization
and massification trend in maritime freight, seaports
are under pressures of development to catch up with
ever-growing traffic of international trade.
Recently, Myanmar economy is growing rapidly
which exceeds the capability of the seaport system.
Therefore, developing the seaport system and
maritime industry would bring a significant impact by
removing the bottleneck of Myanmar import/export
flows. That leads to the need of studying the
characteristics of the port system in Myanmar, which
contributes to the foundation of further research for
improvement. This study aims to identify the current
capacity of the Myanmar container terminals by
comparing them with maritime operations performed
in major Vietnamese container terminals. We choose
Vietnam as a benchmarking object for Myanmar port
because this country is one of the leading maritime
systems among the maritime countries which have
similar characteristics with Myanmar. Myanmar and
Vietnam are both emerging countries in Southeast
Asia region with high reliance on maritime transport
for international trading. The two countries share
similarities of geographical location, rapid economic
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JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
growth, living standards and both possess advantages
in developing maritime transport. The system in both
countries are mainly gateway ports, which mainly
serve the domestic demand of international trade.
Other leading system in the region like Singapore
does not fit well in this situation due to
incomparability in size or different types of seaports
(transhipment port instead of gateway). As seaports
are the most important gateways to international
connectivity on trading, comparing with major
Vietnam international container terminals will
highlight the characteristics of seaports in Myanmar
and provide insights for stakeholders in the industry.
The structure of the paper is as follows. From a
literature review, we define the comparison
framework of five dimensions, i.e. port infrastructure,
port connectivity, port management, port operation
and port charge. We then use the comparison results
to point out the current issues in Myanmar and
Vietnam seaports and give the recommendation
accordingly.
2. Overview of Seaports in Myanmar and
Vietnam
Myanmar has a strategic location near all major
Indian Ocean maritime routes. The country has a long
coastline of 2,930kilometres from the mouth of Naf
River to the city Kawthaung. It covers three main
regions: the North-West area, called Rakhine Coast
with 713km length; the Yangon area with Dealta
Coast of 437km and the South area with Thanintharyi
Coast of 1078km [3].
Myanmar has a total of nine ports catering mainly
for its seaborne and coastal trade, spreading over the
whole national coastline. According to Netherland
Maritime Land [3], the ports of Sittwe, Pathein,
Mawlamyine and Myeik serve as international
exporting ports, while the ports of Kyaukphyu,
Thandwe, and Dawei mainly serve for domestic
coastal traffic. Among these ports, Kawthaung port
has been used for domestic coastal traffic as well as
an export port for cargoes going to Thailand. Yangon
port is the biggest international port of Myanmar as it
handles the most import and export maritime freight
of the country. As the largest existing port complex, it
can serve vessels up to 15,000 - 20,000DWT, with
underway expansion to increase up to a 35,000DWT
vessel capacity. Thilawa International Port, an
expansion of the Port of Yangon, is located 16km
from Yangon downstream of the river.
Vietnam has a coastline of over 3,200 kilometres
with thousands of small and large islands, and many
locations for ship building along the coast. The
country is very close to the main international
maritime routes with the highest density of vessel
traffic in the world. The seaports in Vietnam can also
be used as gateways for landlocked neighbouring
countries, such as Laos and the hinterlands, North -
Western Thailand and South - Eastern China.
Currently, Vietnam has 45 seaports and 263 berths
with about 89km total length of berths [4]. In
particular, there are two international gateway ports in
Vietnam, i.e. Cai Mep - Thi Vai (Vung Tau) and Lach
Huyen (Hai Phong). The former can receive up to
194,000DWT vessels while the later could serve the
largest vessels of 100,000DWT. With the capacity of
about 543.7million tons/year, Vietnam seaport system
annually serves up to 90 percent of import and export
goods, contributing as a driving force of the national
economic development.
3. Comparative Analysis of International
Seaports in Myanmar and Vietnam
We first review the literature of port competition
and port selection to identify the criteria for the
comparative analysis. Although ports are assessed
from different perspectives based on specific context,
many studies share the similarity of five main
components, i.e. port infrastructure, port connectivity,
port management, port operation and port charge [5-
11]. Port infrastructure includes characteristics of
nautical accessibility, the area of marshalling and
container yards, infrastructure for transloading to
inland transportation like road, rail and inland
waterway, handling facilities and equipment at ports.
Port connectivity component is twofold, i.e. the ability
to reach the inland locations from such port and the
ease to move cargo to/from other seaports. The
criteria group of port management implies the port
governance models, i.e. public service port, tool port,
landlord port, and private service port, defined by
World Bank [12]. Port operation includes the
perspectives of port productivity, port security, safety
and paperwork processing like customs clearance.
Finally, port charge implies the cost and efficiency of
all port activities, i.e. towage, pilotage, berthing,
handling, storing and the number of ship calls.
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Table 1. Comparison of Myanmar and Vietnam international container terminals
Criteria Sub-criteria Myanmar Vietnam Note
P
o
rt
I
n
fr
a
st
ru
ct
u
re
Port area Average 27.03 ha. in each port Average 48 ha. in each port Average area
Quay
174 meters a quay in average
4 quays per terminal
320 meters a quay in average
3 quays per terminal
Average value of
quay and quay
length
Nautical
accessibility
Max draft - 9 m (MPA)
Vessels visiting the ports of Yangon
have to deal with tidal issues.
Max draft - 17 m (VPA)
No need to wait for tide
Equipment Used
- MPA:
2 x 40-ton Gantry Crane
3 x 40-ton Mobile Crane
- MIP:
7 x GOTTWALD Crane
2 x GENMA Crane
- MITT:
2 x 40-ton Container Quay
Crane
5 x 40-ton Gantry Crane
- HCIT: 8 x waterside outreach
65m, height of spreader 46m,
hoisting capacity 65mt
- TICT: Total 10 cranes:
1 unit: 46m height, 65m
outreach (24 rows)
6 units: 40m height, 55m
outreach (20 rows)
3 units: 33m height, 50m
outreach (18 rows)
P
o
rt
C
o
n
n
ec
ti
v
it
y
Port liner shipping
connectivity index
12.74 85.52
P
o
rt
m
a
n
a
g
em
en
t
Port governance
model
Landlord tool port and landlord
P
o
rt
o
p
er
a
ti
o
n
Port safety 0.45% 1.73%
Maritime
transport
accident rate
Administration &
customs procedure
Myanmar Automated Cargo
Clearance System; within 24
hours
Electronic customs clearance,
takes 70 hours to clear export
goods and 90 hours for imports.
Throughput 1,043,469TEU 13,008,463TEU In 2018
Number of vessels
called
2,267 calls 34,913 calls In 2018
Handling
productivity
80-100 moves/hour 30-35 moves/hour
Container
Gantries
Ship turnaround 14.2 hours More than 30 hours 1000 TEU vessel
P
o
rt
c
h
a
rg
e
Pilotage & towage $460 $5,536
For a vessel of
200 m Length
with a Draft 9 m
Berthing cost $410 $986
Per day for up to
15000 GRT
vessels
Handling cost $150 $90
Per 40’ FCL
containers
Storing cost $2 $1.8 For 1 TEU per day
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JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Table 1 summarizes our findings on the
comparison of major international container terminal
in two countries using the proposed framework. The
secondary data was collected and synthesized from
each seaport’s webpage, the data source of Vietnam
Port Association and recent maritime reports. As
introduced before, Yangon is the largest international
seaports which cover most import and export
seaborne traffic in Myanmar. Therefore, we compare
all container terminals of Yangon seaport with two
largest international container terminals in Vietnam,
i.e. Haiphong International Container Terminal
(HICT) and Tan Cang - Cai Mep International
Terminal (TCIT). They are major container terminals
in Vietnam which provide mainline service between
Vietnam and North America/European. There are
seven terminals in Yangon seaport, including MITT,
Sule Terminals, Bo Aung Kyaw Terminals, Asia
World Port Terminals, MIP, Ahlone Int’l Terminal,
Htee Tan Oil Terminals.
a. Port infrastructure
In terms of port infrastructure, the average area of
these Vietnamese international container terminals
almost doubles the Myanmar ports’ size. Although the
number of quays per terminal in major Vietnamese
terminals is slightly less (3 compared to 4), the
average quay length in Vietnamese cases double the
one in Myanmar terminals. Moreover, the comparison
between the depths of Nautical Accessibility
highlights that these Vietnamese terminals are able to
receive the much bigger vessels with the deepest
terminal of 17-meter water depth, compared to the
maximum number of 9-meter depth in Myanmar
terminals. The maximum vessel called at Vietnamese
terminals has the size of 190,000DWT, while
Myanmar terminals could only serve up to
20,000DWT vessels. Next, in terms of handling
facilities, the total number of various kinds of cranes
and tractors are used to demonstrate the level of
facilities at ports of Myanmar and Vietnam. As
shown, facilities and equipment at the Port of Yangon
and other Ports are not modernised compared to
Vietnamese Ports. The equipment used at the
Myanmar Ports are smaller in terms of size as well as
the numbers.
b. Port connectivity
In order to measure the international connectivity
of the ports, we use the Liner Shipping Connectivity
Index by UNCTAD. The study found out that the
Myanmar’s index was 12.74 while Vietnam is 85.52
in 2019. According to TICT, being near the biggest
manufacturing area in Vietnam including Ho Chi
Minh City and Binh Duong, Dong Nai and Ba Ria -
Vung Tau, Tan Cang - Cai Mep International
Terminal has developed as Vietnam’s first deep water
terminal to accommodate the large container vessels
for direct linkage to the main export destinations in
America and Europe. Also, TCIT has expanded Intra
- Asia services to transport containerized cargoes
from Cai Mep to other countries in Asia such as Japan,
Korea, China, Philippines, Thailand, etc. In contrast,
Yangon terminals only connect to Port of Singapore,
Malaysia, India and China.
c. Port management
With regards of port management, Yangon Port
was a public service port until it became a landlord
port in 1998. Before the change, the port is owned and
operated by Myanmar Port Authority, which is under
the control of the Ministry of Transport. At the same
time, the MPA also operates, owns, manages and
operates other coastal ports in Myanmar. At the 1998,
the Port Authority leases land to a private terminal
operator, and then manages and operates the terminal
on a BOT (build-own-transfer) basis. Such port
management change is due to the insufficient budget
on the port sustainment of Myanmar national
government. MPA has to depend fully on the
government budget. The participation of the private
sector increases port development knowledge in
MPA, which can serve as a capacity building
opportunity. Therefore, the influence of the private
sector is indispensable. In Vietnam, most seaports are
under tool port model and owned by the public sector.
There is one exception in the case of new terminal in
HICT where landlord port model was applied.
d. Port operation
The comparison of the Port Safety between the
Vietnamese and Myanmar container terminals can be
characterised by the maritime accident rate which is
influenced by the numbers of vessels in each
country’s territorial water. According to Korea
Maritime institute [13], the accident rate at
Vietnamese ports is 1.7%, four times of such number
at Yangon Port (0.45%). These percentages indicate
safer ports to be found at Yangon Port, Myanmar.
The comparison points out the port productivity of
Vietnamese terminals is much higher than Myanmar
ones. In 2017 Vietnamese terminals handle
13,008,463TEU while this number in Myanmar is
1,043,469TEU. This is nearly 13 times difference of
throughputs, which highlights how the Vietnamese
terminals are more efficient in operating than Yangon
Port of Myanmar. This number is in line with the
comparison of Number of vessels called by each port:
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34,913 at Vietnam compared to 2,267 at Myanmar.
Additionally, the handling productivity of 80-100
moves per hour in major Vietnamese terminals are
much higher than ones in Myanmar (30-35
moves/hour). The ship turnaround time at Vietnamese
terminals is only a half of Myanmar terminals as
shown in Table 1.
However, the customs clearance procedure in
Myanmar ports is much faster than in Vietnam ports.
The process takes to clear export goods and 90 hours
for imports in Vietnam ports while takes only 24
hours in Myanmar. This could be explained by the fact
that Vietnamese seaports are facing huge maritime
traffic which creates the bottleneck in customs
clearance process.
e. Port charge
At Myanmar ports, the pilotage & towage charge
is $460 for a vessel of 200-meter length with a 9-meter
draft, whilst the same type of vessel will be charged
$5,536 at Vietnamese Ports. This comparison
definitely points out an apparently higher charges of
Pilotage & Towage at Vietnamese Ports than those at
Myanmar Port. Similarly, the berthing cost at
Vietnamese Ports are likely doubled the cost at
Myanmar port. When comparing the handling costs of
containers at these two ports, we found the handling
cost in Vietnam is only a half of Myanmar ports (90
USD per 40 feet container in Vietnam and 150USD in
Myanmar). This favourable price in Vietnam could be
explained by the high competition among terminals in
concentrated areas of the country. For storing
containers, ports in both countries authorise free
period allowed of 7 days from the date of receipt. The
storing charge for exceeded days is 2 USD per TEU
per a day in Myanmar and 1.8 USD in Vietnam, which
is not much different.
4. Conclusion and recommendations
The study compares the major international
container terminals in Vietnam and Myanmar, using
the framework of five factor groups, i.e. port
infrastructure, port connectivity, port management,
port operation and port charge. The study has come up
with a comparative report to provide a better
understanding about the port system in Myanmar.
This could benefit the relevant stakeholders in
maritime industries, such as the government, port
cities, port operators, shipping lines in Myanmar,
Vietnam and connecting countries by providing
insights of the situation in both countries for their
decision-making. In the following part, we give the
recommendation for maritime stakeholders in
Myanmar in developing seaport systems through the
lessons learnt from Vietnam.
The comparison shows that Myanmar ports are
lagging behind with poor infrastructure, limited
maritime connectivity, low productivity in port
operation despite they have the preferable port charge,
fast customs clearance process, low accident rate and
the private participation in the port governance model.
The weakness of port operation in Myanmar terminals
includes low handling productivity, high ship
turnaround, which lead to their low total throughput.
In order to develop the international port system,
Myanmar government needs to pay more attention in
following issues. First, they need to upgrade the port
infrastructure in their terminals and utilize better the
current resource, including equipment and land uses.
In order to improve the productivity at ports,
Myanmar needs to eliminate overlapped paperwork
systems to replace with single window port online
system. They might seek for foreign investments,
financial and technology aids for port developments.
Finally, the port managers in Myanmar need to seek
for more international collaboration in the maritime
sector to improve their port connectivity, which will
improve the maritime traffic and strengthen their
ports’ competitiveness.
This paper also points out the current issues of
Vietnamese container terminals in operation. The
high maritime accident rate requires more attention of
port managers in port safety. The long customs
clearance procedure would severely influence the port
competitiveness and unnecessarily increase the total
logistics cost and time for shippers. They could be
explained by the fact that Vietnamese seaports are
facing huge maritime traffic which create the
problems in congestion, safety and customs
procedures. From the perspective of Myanmar
maritime stakeholders, they should foresee these
issues when the maritime traffic grows and have better
preparation for such development.
REFERENCES
[1] Hlali, A. and S. Hammami, Seaport Concept and
Services Characteristics: Theoretical Test. The
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[2] Wang, J.J., A container load center with a
developing hinterland: a case study of Hong
Kong. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol.
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[3] Nederland Maritiem Land, Myanmar maritime
quickscan. 2016.
KHOA HỌC - CÔNG NGHỆ
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Received: 20 Apirl 2020
Revised: 15 May 2020
Accepted: 25 May 2020
[4] Vietnam Logistics Business Association, VLA
White book 25 years of growth and international
integration. 2018.
[5] Ugboma, C., O. Ugboma, and I.C. Ogwude, An
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[6] Chou, C.-C., AHP model for the container port
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[7] Chang, Y.-T., S.-Y. Lee, and J.L. Tongzon, Port
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[8] Tongzon, J.L. and L. Sawant, Port choice in a
competitive environment: from the shipping
lines' perspective. Applied Economics,Vol.
39(4): pp.477-492. 2007.
[9] Lirn, T.-C., H.A. Thanopoulou, and A.K.
Beresford, Transhipment port selection and
decision-making behaviour: analysing the
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Logistics: Research and Applications, Vol. 6(4):
pp.229-244. 2003.
[10] Tongzon, J.L., Port choice and freight
forwarders. Transportation Research Part E:
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[11] Bachkar, K. and L.C. Nguyen, A conceptual
model for benchmarking transshipment
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Bay. Interanational Journal of Logistics Systems
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publication on 31 Oct 2019.
[12] The World Bank. Port reform toolkit. 2007
[cited 2019 2 July]; Available from:
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[13] Korea Maritime Institute, Study on the
Improvement of Maritime Transport Safety in
The ESCAP Region. 2017.
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