Quản trị kinh doanh - Communication processes

Communication ProcessesCommunication ProcessesGlossaryCase StudyCommunicationCase StudyLanguage BehaviorCase StudySelf-DisclosureInteraction RolesThe Systems ApproachGlossaryAppropriateness—includes several factors that help determine the timing and extent of self-disclosure.Bypassing—a misunderstanding that occurs when the sender . . . and the receiver . . . miss each other with their meaning.Content and Process—content of a group discussion includes comments about the topic of the discussion. Process is the manner in which the discussion is conducted.GlossaryDefensive-Supportive Communication — defensive communication occurs when a psychological barrier is created, known as a defense mechanism. This barrier acts to reduce effective communication. Supportive communication minimizes these types of problems.Emotional Intelligence—personal and interpersonal skills that enable one to induce desired responses in others.Group-Building and Maintenance Roles—help the interpersonal functioning of the group and alter the way of working by strengthening, regulating, and perpetuating the group.GlossaryGroup Task Roles—identifiable behaviors that are directed toward accomplishing the group’s objective.Individual Roles—roles that are designed to satisfy an individual’s needs rather than to contribute to satisfying the needs of the group.Inference Making—refers to going beyond observations and what we know. Inferences have only a low probability of coming true.Intentional-Unintentional Communication—Intentional communication occurs when we communicate what we mean to. Unintentional communication occurs when we communicate something different from what we intend.GlossaryPolarizing—the exaggeration that occurs when people attempt to make a point.Signal Reactions—learned responses to certain stimuli, such as emotional reactions to offensive swear words or racial slurs.Verbal-Nonverbal Communication—verbal communication is the use of words to get across a message. Nonverbal communication is the use of physical actions, such as facial expression or tone of voice, to get across a message.Case StudyThe Departmental E-mail1. What do you think would have been your reactions if you were Jones, Cameron, or Hotchkiss?2. What would have been your reactions if you were one of the members of the department?CommunicationEmotional IntelligenceA combination of intrapersonal communication (personal competence) and interpersonal communication (social competence).Communication DefinedThe process of creating meanings in the minds of others.CommunicationCommunication Defined . . . (continued)O’Hair, Friedrich, and Shaver (1998, pp. 4-5) identify six key components of effective communication skills:1. Creative insight is the ability to ask the right questions.2. Sensitivity means [a person] practices the golden rule.3. Vision means being able to create the future.4. Versatility is the capacity for anticipating change.5. Focus is required to implement the change.6. Patience allows . . . people to live in the long term. CommunicationCommunication Defined . . . (continued)Communication among group members may depend on the nature of the group.Intentional-Unintentional CommunicationUnintentional messages may be transmitted by action as well as by words.Like the intended message, feedback also has content and relationship levels.CommunicationIntentional-Unintentional . . . (continued)Groups are one context in which we get feedback on behaviors that help us eliminate unintentional cues.The gap between what we intend to communicate and what is actually received is called the arc of distortion.Most experts agree that effective feedback should (1) be clear and understandable, (2) come from a trusted person, and (3) be as immediate as possible.CommunicationVerbal-Nonverbal CommunicationVisual cuesFacial expressionEye contactBody positioningHand gesturesStyle of dressPhysical appearanceBody movementsCommunicationVerbal-Nonverbal Communication (cont’d)Vocal CuesVocal cues include regional dialects, methods of pronunciation, and the five major factors:Volume—speaking with adequate loudness is the first responsibility of any communicator.Rate and fluency—if the person is able to articulate well, a faster rate seems to be more interesting to listen to.Pitch—refers to the frequency in cycles per second (CPS) of the vocal tones.Quality—refers to the resonance of the voice.Inflection—refers to the relative emphasis, pitch changes, and duration in uttering different word parts in a sentence.CommunicationVerbal-Nonverbal Communication (cont’d)All verbal and nonverbal cues are perceived as a whole.Nonverbal communication takes a different form at the organizational level.An open-office layout, as opposed to the conventional, individual-office design, is often conducive to communication in the workplace and can lead to greater employee satisfaction.The décor and layout of corporate offices lead to the impressions that people have about that corporation.CommunicationDefensive-Supportive CommunicationGibb (1961) described defensive and supportive communication climates that Whetton and Cameron (2002) have refined:Supportive Climates Defensive ClimatesDescription EvaluationProblem orientation ControlSpontaneity StrategyEmpathy NeutralityEquality SuperiorityProvisionalism CertaintyCommunicationDefensive-Supportive CommunicationSometimes it may become necessary to criticize a group member.1. Direct critical comments to the work, and not to the person who performed it.2. Turn individual criticism into a group criticism by making the statement general.3. Present the criticism in a way that forces the group members to come up with answers to the problem.CommunicationDefensive-Supportive CommunicationLaFasto and Larson (2001) divide communication patterns into four types:Explicit rejection (disconfirming) Implicit rejection (disconfirming) Explicit acceptance (confirming) Implicit acceptance (confirming)Content and Process of CommunicationsOne rather difficult distinction to make about group discussion is the difference between the content of the discussion and the process.CommunicationListeningWhen we can make the other person feel really understood, we are often seen as effective communicators.CommunicationListening . . . (continued)Improving listening skills:1. Pay attention and show positive nonverbal behavior.2. Listen for content. Describe what you hear, then attempt to state what it means to you.3. Try not to interrupt.4. Try not to argue mentally.5. Ask for clarification rather than assuming you know what is meant.6. Avoid side conversations. Source: Adapted from Gregory, 1999.Communication—Practical TipsTjosvold and Tjsovold (1991) offer the following practical advice on how to communicate effectively in a team setting.1. Express your own ideas clearly and logically, but avoid arguing blindly for them. Consider other viewpoints.2. Change your mind based on the logical [points] of others. Do not change your mind [only] to avoid conflict.3. See a consensus decision. Avoid majority voting, tossing a coin.Communication—Practical TipsTjosvold and Tjsovold (1991) . . . (continued)4. Foster opposing views. Encourage people to become involved and speak their minds. 5. Discuss underlying assumptions and ideas.6. Strive for a win-win solution that incorporates the best of all ideas.7. Reconsider an earlier decision. (pp. 136-37)Case StudyNiggardly Controversy (A)1. What do you think of the mayor’s action to dismiss Mr. Howard for the use of the word niggardly?2. What do you think of Mr. Howard’s judgment in using the word in a district that is 65 to 85 percent black?3. What other examples can you cite of your experiences in groups where language has created a problem for the group?Language BehaviorThe study of the interaction between verbal symbols and the thought patterns associated with them is referred to as general semantics.BypassingIn group discussions, the entire focus of the discussion may be diverted by a difference in interpretation of a given word.Language Behavior, Bypassing—Practical TipsBe person-minded, not word-minded.Question and paraphrase.Be receptive to feedback.Be sensitive to context.Language BehaviorInference MakingIn attempting to analyze behaviors, it is wise to recognize that analyses often involve inferences that go beyond what we have observed and involve some probability for error.Language BehaviorPolarizingThe statements get more intense emotionally.The statements go from being specific to being more general.The statements tend to move away from the topic at hand to other issues.The simple restating technique can be quite potent in reducing the problem of polarization.Language BehaviorThe Relationship Between an Object and the Symbol for the ObjectLanguage BehaviorThe Same Object May Be Represented by More than One SymbolLanguage BehaviorInferences versus ObservationsLanguage BehaviorSurface and Hidden Agendas ComparedLanguage BehaviorSignal ReactionsA study that directly tested emotional reactions to verbal symbols proved that strong physiological reactions to symbols are typical rather than pathological.In group discussions, certain phrases—referred to as idea killers or communication stoppers—are likely to produce signal reactions that are counterproductive (Tubbs and Moss, 2003).Language Behavior— Practical TipsIdea Killer Phrases“That’s ridiculous.” “We tried that before.”“That will never work.”“That’s crazy.”“It’s too radical a change.”“We’re too small for it.”“It’s not practical.”“Let’s get back to reality.”“You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.”“We’ll be the laughingstock.”“You’re absolutely wrong.”“You don’t know what you’re talking about.”“It’s impossible.”“There’s no way it can be one.”Language Behavior— Practical TipsIgniter Phrases “I agree.” “That’s good!” “I made a mistake. I’m  sorry.” “That’s a great idea.” “I’m glad you brought  that up.” “You’re on the right  track.” “I know it will work.”“We’re going to try something different today.”“I never thought of that.”“We can do a lot with that idea.”“Real good, anyone else?”“I like that!”“That would be worth a try.”“Why don’t we assume it would work and go from there.”Case StudyNiggardly Controversy (B)1. What do you now think of Mr. Howard’s use of the word?2. What do you now think of the mayor’s actions?3. What lessons have you learned about language behavior from this case?Self-DisclosurePerhaps one of the greatest dilemmas facing a group member is the choice between openly expressing his or her thoughts and feelings and concealing or distorting inner feelings, thoughts, or perceptions.Self-DisclosureThe Johari WindowThe Johari window classifies an individual’s relating to others according to four quadrants (or windowpanes).Quadrant 1, the open quadrant, represents our willingness to share with others our views on general topics.Quadrant 2, the blind quadrant, represents the things others may know about us that we do unintentionally and unknowingly.Self-DisclosureThe Johari WindowThe Johari window . . . (continued)Quadrant 3, the hidden area, represents the feelings about ourselves that we know but are unwilling to reveal to others.Quadrant 4, the area of the unknown, includes almost anything outside our experience.Luft advocates changing the shape of the window so that quadrant 1 enlarges while all the others become smaller.Self-DisclosureThe Johari WindowSource: Joseph Luft. Group Processes: An Introduction to Group Dynamics, by permission of Mayfield Publishing Company. Copyright © 1963, 1970 by Joseph Luft. Self-DisclosureWhen Is Self-Disclosure Appropriate?Luft (1969) proposes the following guidelines:1. When it is a function of the ongoing relationship.2. When it occurs reciprocally.3. When it is timed to fit what is happening.4. When it concerns what is going on within and between persons in the present.5. When it moves by relatively small increments.Self-DisclosureWhen Is Self-Disclosure Appropriate?Luft (1969) . . . (continued) 6. When it is confirmable by the other person. 7. When account is taken of the effect disclosure has on the other person(s). 8. When it creates a reasonable risk. 9. When it is speeded up in a crisis.10. When the context is mutually shared.Interaction RolesGroup Task RolesInitiating-contributingInformation seekingOpinion seekingInformation givingOpinion givingCoordinatingInteraction RolesGroup Task Roles . . . (continued)ElaboratingOrientingEvaluatingEnergizingAssisting on procedureRecordingInteraction RolesGroup-Building and Maintenance RolesEncouragingHarmonizingCompromisingGatekeeping and expeditingSetting standards or idealsObservingFollowingInteraction RolesIndividual RolesAggressingBlockingRecognition seekingSelf-confessingActing the playboyDominatingHelp seekingSpecial-interest pleadingThe Systems ApproachMany authors stress that the participants in any communication event are highly dependent on one another.The type of group and the personalities, genders, body shapes, and ability levels all interact to produce the outcome.The Systems ApproachFour problems related to language behavior—bypassing, inference making, polarizing, and signal reactions—are related to both the background factors of the individuals and the eventual consequences of group discussion.Appropriate self-disclosure will vary considerably from group to group.Group task and group maintenance roles contribute the group’s needs.