Tâm lý học - Chapter 1: Introduction

Life-Span Development Thirteenth EditionChapter 1: Introduction©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..Development: the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life spanTraditional Approach: emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little to no change in adulthood, and decline in old ageLife-Span Approach: emphasizes developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.2The Life-Span Perspective©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.3Life Span: based on oldest age documentedCurrently 122 yearsLife Expectancy: average number of years that a person can expect to liveCurrently 78 yearsThe Life-Span PerspectiveLife-Span Perspective views development as:Lifelong – no age period is dominantMultidimensional – biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensionsPlastic – capable of change©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.4The Life-Span PerspectiveLife-Span Perspective views development as:Multidisciplinary – shared by psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers Contextual – occurs within a settingThree types of contextual influences:Normative age-graded influences: similar for individuals in a particular age groupNormative history-graded influences: common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstancesNon-normative life events: unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s lifeThe Life-Span Perspective5©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of lossDevelopment is a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.6The Life-Span PerspectiveBiological: changes in an individual’s physical natureCognitive: changes in thought, intelligence, and languageSocioemotional: changes in relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.7The Nature of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.8Biological processesSocioemotional processesCognitive processesDevelopmental Changes Are a Result of Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional ProcessesPeriods of DevelopmentPrenatal period: conception to birth (9 months)Infancy: birth to 18-24 monthsEarly childhood: 2 to 5-6 years; play yearsMiddle and late childhood: 6-11 years©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.9The Nature of DevelopmentPeriods of DevelopmentAdolescence: from 10-12 to 18-21 yearsEarly adulthood: early 20’s through the 30’sMiddle adulthood: 40-60 yearsLate adulthood: 60’s-70’s to deathThe Nature of Development10©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Four “Ages” of DevelopmentFirst Age: Childhood and adolescenceSecond Age: Prime adulthood (20’s through 50’s)Third Age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of ageFourth Age: Approximately 80 years and older©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.11The Nature of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.12100020408060Happy people (%)Age range (years)Age and Happiness65 +15-2425-3435-4445-5455-64Conceptions of AgeChronological ageBiological agePsychological ageSocial age©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.13The Nature of DevelopmentDevelopmental IssuesNature and NurtureStability and ChangeContinuity and Discontinuity©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.14The Nature of DevelopmentFive Theoretical Orientations to DevelopmentPsychoanalyticCognitiveBehavioral and Social CognitiveEthological Ecological©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.15Theories of Development Psychoanalytic TheoriesFreud’s Theory:Focus of sexual impulses changes throughout developmentFive stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.16Theories of DevelopmentPsychoanalytic TheoriesErikson’s Psychosocial Theory:Focused on our desire to affiliate with other peopleBelieved that developmental change occurs throughout the life spanProposed eight stages of developmentEach stage comprises a crisis that must be resolved©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.17Theories of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.18Theories of DevelopmentErikson’s Psychosocial StagesCognitive TheoriesPiaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:Emphasizes the processes of organization and adaptationFour stages of cognitive development in children©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.19Theories of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.20Theories of DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive TheoriesVygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory:Children actively construct their knowledgeEmphasizes how social interaction and culture guide cognitive developmentLearning is based upon the inventions of society©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.21Theories of DevelopmentCognitive TheoriesInformation-Processing Theory:Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about itIndividuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing informationDevelopment is not stage-like©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.22Theories of DevelopmentBehavioral and Social Cognitive Theories:Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:Consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrenceA reward increases likelihood of behaviorA punishment decreases likelihood of behavior©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.23Theories of DevelopmentBehavioral and Social Cognitive Theories:Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory:Behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in developmentObservational learning: learning through observationPeople cognitively represent the behavior of othersTheories of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.24Ethological TheoryEthnology: stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology and is tied to evolutionBrought to prominence by Konrad LorenzBowlby stressed the importance of human attachment during the first year of life ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.25Theories of DevelopmentEcological TheoryBronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory: development reflects the influence of five environmental systems:MicrosystemMesosystemExosystemMacrosystemChronosystem©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.26Theories of DevelopmentBronfenbrenner’s Ecological TheoryTheories of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.27©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.28Theories of DevelopmentComparison of TheoriesEclectic Theoretical Orientation:No single theory can explain all of developmentEvery theory has contributed to our understandingEclectic orientation selects from each theory whatever is considered its best featuresTheories of Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.29