Tâm lý học - Chapter 18: Cognitive development in late adulthood

Life-Span DevelopmentThirteenth EditionChapter 18: Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 1Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalityCognitive mechanics and Cognitive Pragmatics: the “hardware” of the mind and the neurophysiological architecture of the brainTends to decline with ageCognitive pragmatics: culture-based “software” programs of the mindReading, writing, and educational qualificationsProfessional skills and language comprehensionKnowledge of self and life skillsMay improve with ageCognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 2Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 3Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalitySpeed of Processing:Often due to a decline in brain and CNS functioningAttention:Selective attentionOlder adults are generally less adept at thisDivided AttentionSustained AttentionCognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 4Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 5Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalityMemory:Memory changes during aging, but not all memory changes in the same wayEpisodic memory: younger adults have better episodic memorySemantic memory: does not decline as drastically as episodic memoryException: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonCognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 6Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalityMemory (continued):Working memory and perceptual speed: decline during the late adulthood yearsExplicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can stateImplicit memory: memory without conscious recollection; skills and routines that are automatically performedImplicit memory shows less aging declines than explicit memorySource memory: the ability to remember where one learned somethingDecreases with age during late adulthoodCognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 7Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalityMemory (continued):Prospective memory: remembering to do something in the futureAge decline depends on the nature of the task and what is being assessedOlder adults’ beliefs and expectancies about memory play a role in their actual memoryMemory ability is influenced by health, education, and socioeconomic statusResearch has relied primarily on laboratory tests of memory, not real-world tasksCognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 8Multidimensionality and MultidirectionalityDecision Making: preserved rather well in older adultsWisdom: expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important mattersHigh levels of wisdom are rareLate adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to emergeFactors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high levelPersonality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factorsCognitive Functioning in Older Adults ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 9Education, Work, and Health Education:Successive generations in America’s 20th century were better educatedWork:Successive generations have placed a stronger emphasis on cognitively oriented laborHealth:Successive generations have been healthier in late adulthoodTerminal decline: changes in cognitive functioning may be linked more to distance from death than distance from birthCognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 10Use It or Lose ItCertain mental activities can benefit the maintenance of cognitive skillsReading books, doing crossword puzzles, going to lectures and concertsResearch suggests that mental exercise may reduce cognitive decline and lower the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s diseaseCognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 11Training Cognitive Skills Training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adultsThere is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood, especially in the oldest-oldCognitive vitality of older adults can be improved through cognitive and physical fitness trainingCognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 12Cognitive Neuroscience and AgingCognitive neuroscience: discipline that studies links between the brain and cognitive functioningChanges in the brain can influence cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brainThe cognitive neuroscience of aging is beginning to uncover important links between aging, the brain, and cognitive functioningCognitive Functioning in Older Adults©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 13Some decrements in language may appear in late adulthoodTip-of-the-tongue phenomenonDifficulty understanding speech Speech of older adults is lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluentSlower information processing speed and decline in working memory may be responsible for some of the decline in language skillsLanguage Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 14WorkGood health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a distaste for retirement are important factors related to continued employment into old ageCognitive ability is the best predictor of job performance in older adultsWork and Retirement©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 15Work and Retirement©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 16Retirement in the U.S. and in Other Countries Retirement in the U.S. On average, workers will spend 10%–15% of their lives in retirementLife paths for individuals in their 60s are less clear today7 million retired Americans return to work after they retireWork and Retirement©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 17Retirement in the U.S. and in Other Countries Work and Retirement in Other Countries33% of those in their 60s and 11% in their 70s are still workingAn increasing number of adults are beginning to reject the early retirement option©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Work and Retirement18Adjustment to Retirement Older adults who adjust best to retirement are: Healthy Active and have an adequate incomeAre better educatedHave extended social networks and familyWere satisfied with their lives before retiringFlexibility and planning are key factors in whether individuals adjust well to retirementWork and Retirement©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 19DepressionMajor depression: mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and boredLess common among older adults than younger adultsCommon predictors:Earlier depressive symptomsPoor health or disabilityLoss events Low social support25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of age or olderMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 20Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions Dementia: any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementiaAlzheimer Disease: a common form of dementia that is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical functionDivided into early-onset (younger than 65) or late-onset (later than 65)Mental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 21Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions Alzheimer Disease (continued):Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholineDeterioration of the brainFormation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tanglesApolipoprotein E could play a role in as many as 1/3 of the cases of Alzheimer DiseaseMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 22Mental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions 23Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions Early Detection and Alzheimer DiseaseMild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early diseasefMRI shows smaller brain regions involved in memory for individuals with MCIMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 24Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions Drug Treatment of Alzheimer DiseaseCholinerase inhibitors and other drugs slow the downward progression of Alzheimer DiseaseCaring for Individuals with Alzheimer DiseaseSupport is often emotionally and physically draining for the family; 50% of family caregivers report depressionFemale caregivers report more caregiving hoursRespite care services©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Mental Health25Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions Multi-Infarct Dementia: a sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction of blood flow in cerebral arteriesCommon in men with a history of high blood pressure; many recoverParkinson Disease: a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and facial paralysisTriggered by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brainSeveral treatments are availableMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 26Fear of Victimization, Crime, and Elder Mistreatment There is a sense of fear and vulnerability in older adults because of their physical decline and limitationsCrimes committed against older adults are likely to be serious offensesElder maltreatment is primarily committed by family membersCan include neglect and psychological or physical abuseAlso can experience institutional abuse: mistreatment of older adults living in care facilitiesMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 27Fear of Victimization, Crime, and Elder Mistreatment Older adults receive disproportionately fewer mental health servicesPsychologists prefer to work with young, attractive, verbal, intelligent and successful clients (YAVISes) rather than quiet, ugly, old, institutionalized, and different clients (QUOIDs)Mental health care needs to be more available and affordable for older adultsMental Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 28Older adults are spiritual leaders in many societies around the worldOlder adults who derived a sense of meaning in life from religion had higher levels of life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimismReligion can provide some important psychological needs in older adultsReligion©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved 29