Tâm lý học - Chapter 9: Physical and cognitive development in middle and late childhood

Life-Span Development Thirteenth EditionChapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle and Late Childhood©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1Physical Changes and HealthBody Growth and Change:Growth averages 2–3 inches per yearWeight gain averages 5–7 lbs. each yearMuscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2The Brain:Brain volume stabilizesSignificant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortexIncreases in cortical thicknessActivation of some brain areas increase while others decreasePhysical Changes and Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3Motor Development:Motor skills become smoother and more coordinatedImprovement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood due to increased myelination of the central nervous systemBoys outperform girls in large muscle activities and girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skillsPhysical Changes and Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4ExerciseElementary school children need to be activePercentage of children involved in daily P.E. programs in schools decreased from 80% (1969) to 20% (1999)Television watching is linked with low activity and obesity in childrenExercise linked to cognitive developmentPhysical Changes and Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5Physical Changes and HealthExercise©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6Health, Illness, and DiseaseMiddle and late childhood is usually a time of excellent health Accidents and InjuriesMotor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injuryOverweight Children30% of U.S. children are at risk of being overweightCardiovascular DiseaseUncommon in children but risk factors are presentPhysical Changes and Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7Health, Illness, and DiseaseCancerCancer is the 2nd leading cause of death in children 5–14 years old Most common child cancer is leukemiaChildren with cancer are surviving longer because of advancements in cancer treatmentPhysical Changes and Health©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8Physical Changes and HealthHealth, Illness, and Disease©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9Children With Disabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10The Scope of DisabilitiesLearning DisabilitiesDifficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spellingBoys are identified three times more frequently than girlsDyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia are most commonChildren With Disabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11The Scope of DisabilitiesAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity Number of children diagnosed has increased substantiallyPossible CausesGeneticsBrain damage during prenatal or postnatal developmentCigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal developmentLow birth weightChildren With Disabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12The Scope of DisabilitiesEmotional and Behavioral DisordersSerious, persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters, as well as other inappropriate socioemotional characteristicsAutism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)Autistic disorder to Asperger syndromeAppears to be a brain dysfunctionChildren With Disabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13Educational Issues:1975: all public schools required to serve disabled childrenLaw requires disability students to receive:IEP (Individualized Education Plan): written statement that is specifically tailored for the disabled studentLRE (Least Restrictive Environment): a setting that is as similar as possible to that of non-disabled childrenInclusion: educating a child with special education needs in the regular classroomChildren With Disabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental TheoryConcrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different setsSeriation: the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimensionTransitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions Cognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15Information ProcessingMemory: long-term memory increases with age during middle and late childhoodKnowledge and ExpertiseExperts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content areaStrategiesFuzzy Trace TheoryCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16Information ProcessingThinkingCritical Thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidenceMindfulnessCreative Thinking: the ability to think in novel and unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions to problemsConvergent thinking vs. Divergent thinkingCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17Information ProcessingMetacognition: cognition about cognitionMetamemory: knowledge about memoryChildren have some knowledge of metamemory by 5–6 years of ageScientific Thinking:Asking fundamental and identifying causal relations questions about realityCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18IntelligenceAbility to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiencesBinet Tests: designed to identify children with difficulty learning in schoolMental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental development relative to othersIntelligence quotient (IQ): a person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100Stanford-Binet Tests: revised version of the Binet testScores approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curveWechsler Scales: give scores on several composite indicesThree versions for different age groupsCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19Cognitive ChangesIntelligence©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20IntelligenceWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21IntelligenceTypes of Intelligence:Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of IntelligenceAnalytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrastCreative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imaginePractical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practiceCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22IntelligenceTypes of Intelligence (continued):Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind:Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express meaningMathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operationsSpatial: ability to think three-dimensionallyBodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be physically adeptMusical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and toneInterpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively with othersIntrapersonal: ability to understand oneselfNaturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systemsCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23IntelligenceEvaluating Multiple-Intelligence Approaches:Stimulated teachers to think more broadly about children’s competenciesContributed to interest in assessing intelligence and classroom learningResearch has not yet supported the different typesCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24Interpreting Differences in IQ ScoresInfluences of Genetics:Environmental InfluencesGroup DifferencesCreating Culture-FairCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25Differences in IQ Scores©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26Differences in IQ Scores©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27Differences in IQ Scores©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28IntelligenceUsing Intelligence Tests:Avoid stereotyping and expectationsKnow that IQ is not the sole indicator of competenceUse caution in interpreting an overall IQ scoreCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29Extremes of Intelligence:Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ (typically below 70) and has difficulty adapting to everyday lifeCan be mild, moderate, or severeOrganic retardation and Cultural-familial retardationCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30Extremes of Intelligence (continued):Giftedness: people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or superior talent for somethingThree criteria:PrecocityMarching to their own drummerA passion to masterCognitive Changes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 31Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic AwarenessDuring middle and late childhood, changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organizedSimilar advances in grammar skillsMetalinguistic Awareness: knowledge about languageImproves significantly during elementary school yearsLanguage Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32Reading:Two approaches to teaching reading:Whole-language approach vs. Phonics approachWritingParents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing but not be concerned with the formation of letters or spellingLanguage Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning Proficiency in learning a second language is a complex topic U.S. students behind other countriesBilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive developmentBilingual EducationPros and cons – however, research supports bilingual educationLanguage Development©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 34