Giáo dục học - Chapter 8: External environments and accountability of schools

Chapter 8External Environments and Accountability of SchoolsMcGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Selected External Influences and Constituencies for School DistrictsParentsTaxpayersUnionsColleges/UniversitiesRegulatoryAgenciesEducationalAssociationsAccreditingAgenciesLegislaturesSchoolDistrictCulturalValuesDemographicCharacteristicsInformationTechnologiesEconomic and Market ForcesSocietal ConditionsPolitical andLegal PatternsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Two Perspectives on EnvironmentsResource-Dependence PerspectiveEnvironmental resources: Fiscal, Personnel, Information, ProductsEnvironmental resources: Simple or ComplexAvailability of resources: Scarce to MunificenceDependence: Need and AvailabilityDecision makers: View the environment as a place to gain scarce resources for the organizationInstitutional PerspectiveLimited emphasis on goals, effectiveness, and efficiencySchools: Constrained by other institutions of societyAdministrators: Constrained by broader institutionsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Resource-Dependence PerspectiveDependence is characterized as the extent of the need for a resource and its availability.It is directly related to the need for resources controlled by other organizations.Suppliers gain power to decide whether schools get resources they need and determine if the schools can use the resources the way they want.If organizations are unable to generate resources internally, they must enter into external exchanges which may consume vital resources and/or demand changes from the organization. (Pfeffer, 1982, 1997)W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Resource-Dependence Perspective ScarcityCompetition for resources is fierceZero-sum gameLimited to basic academic and extracurricular programming MunificenceSurvival is easyPursue wide-ranging goalsAbundant curricular and extracurricular programsResource ContinuumW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Administering Task EnvironmentsUncertainty and dependency threaten or constrain autonomy and drive change; thus, organizations must cope.Coping Strategies:BufferingPlanning and forecastingBoundary spanningAdjusting operations Accommodating structure W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011The Environment-Structure FitChange the Structure to fit the EnvironmentIf the environment is stable, a mechanistic structure is an effective accommodation. If the environment is unstable, then an organic structure is the better fitIf the environment is stable and the organizational structure is organic, a dysfunctional flexibility emerges. If the environment is unstable and the structure is mechanistic, a dysfunctional rigidity is produced. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Accommodating Structure to Environmental ChangeW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Administering Task EnvironmentsInter-organizational coping strategiesPartnershipsCooptationPolitical lobbyingPooling resourcesW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Institutional PerspectiveInstitutions are more or less agreed-upon set of rules that carry meaning for and determine the actions of some population of actors. Institutional environments are symbolic and cultural in nature.Important ideas include conformity, diversity, and stabilityW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Institutional PerspectiveTypes of ConformityCoercive – pressures of government mandates and inducementsImitative – adopting standard responses from other sources to reduce uncertainty and gain legitimacyNormative – professional standards and codes are spread across organizationsW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Institutional PerspectiveStabilizing forces in education:Centralized government, professional associations, and coalitions standardize operating procedures and provide stability (Meyer & Rowan, 1977)Environmental demands, characteristics of inputs and outputs, technical processes brought under jurisdiction of institutional meanings and controlSupport guaranteed by agreements rather than dependent upon performance.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Administering Institutional EnvironmentsBuffering strategiesDecouplingManaging the imageBoundary-spanning strategiesCategorical conformityStructural conformityProcedural conformityW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011AccountabilityAccountability plans generally include three components:• Standards to identify the subject matter knowledge and skills to be learned.• Tests aligned with the standards.• Consequences of differing levels of goal attainment. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Accountability and ReformThe drive for accountability is based on three underlying principles:• Schools should be held accountable for higher standards of performance.• Schools should be provided assistance to build their capacities for delivering improved education.• Schools must increase the quality and quantity of their performance outcomes, especially student achievement.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Federal Reform InitiativesThe No Child Left Behind ActAYP—Academic Yearly ProgressEBP—Evidence-Based PracticeScientifically-Based Research to inform practiceRace to the Top Adopting StandardsBuilding Data SystemsRecruiting and developing effective teachers and principalsTurning around our lowest achieving schools. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Campbell’s LawThe more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decision making, the more it will distort and corrupt the very social processes it is intended to monitor. Early-warning testing in elementary schools may push out students who are likely to fail the test because both the school and students believe that these students are a poor bet for finishing high school. This is good example of looking good but failing. If accountability practices are to be effective, they must shun short-term successes in favor of rigorous systemic changes that actually improve schools.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011Practical ImperativesKeep organizational structures flexible: It is imperative to respond quickly to environmental constraints.Nurture healthy relations with local groups and agencies: Parental groups and local organizations are important aspects of the immediate environment.Engage the environment: It presents both constraints and opportunities.Develop internal and external coping strategies: Buffering and bridging are two general strategies to cope positively with the external environment.Recognize that schools are institutions: Schools mirror the norms, values, and ideology of the broader society. Develop fair accountability systems for teachers: Accountability is an organizational reality.Ensure that tests are aligned with standards: Clear and rational alignment limits conflict and improves success.Be open to constructive change: Change and reform are integral parts of contemporary schooling.Beware of the dysfunctional consequences of high-stakes testing: A focus on standardized test scores can encourage cheating and limit poor students’ prospects for success.Seek abstract resources such as neighborhood affiliations or school culture: Abstract resources are more potent than simple ones in school improvement.W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011