Tâm lý học - Chapter 7: Physical and cognitive development in early childhood

Life-Span DevelopmentThirteenth EditionChapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development In Early Childhood©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.1Body Growth and ChangeHeight and Weight:Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 7 pounds per year during early childhoodGrowth patterns vary individuallyTwo most important contributors to height differences: ethnic origin and nutrition©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes2Body Growth and ChangeThe BrainBrain growth slows during early childhoodBrain reaches 95% of adult volume by 6 yearsChanges in child’s brain structureIncreased myelinationRapid, distinct spurts of growth especially in the frontal lobes©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes3Motor DevelopmentGross motor skills:Simple movements at age 3More adventurous at age 4Hair-raising risks at age 5Fine motor skills:Still clumsy at 3 yearsImproved fine motor coordination at 4 yearsBody coordination by 5 years©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes4SleepShould sleep 11-13 hours each night without interruptionCan experience narcolepsy, insomnia, and nightmares©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes5Nutrition and ExerciseOverweight Young ChildrenSerious health problems in early childhoodStrongly influenced by caregivers’ behavior11% of 2-19 year-olds are obese, 10% overweight, and 38% at risk of being overweightU.S. has second highest rate of childhood obesityExercise should be a daily occurrence©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes6Nutrition and ExerciseMalnutrition in Young Children from Low-Income Families11 million preschool children are experiencing malnutritionBiggest problem is iron deficiency anemia©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes7Illness and DeathThe United StatesLeading causes of death in U.S. children are:Motor vehicle accidentsCancerCardiovascular diseaseExposure to parental smoking is another major danger to childrenLead poisoningInadequate medical care©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes8©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical ChangesIllness and Death9Illness and DeathState of Illness and Health of the World’s ChildrenMortality rate of children under 5 is the result of a wide range of factorsDevastating effects of health occur in countries with high poverty ratesDramatic increase in deaths due to HIV/AIDS, especially in poor countries©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Physical Changes10Piaget’s Preoperational StageAges 2 to 7 yearsChildren represent the world with words, images, and drawingsChildren form stable concepts and begin to reasonCognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes11Piaget’s Preoperational StageThe Symbolic Function SubstageChild gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not presentEgocentrism: cannot distinguish one’s own perspective from someone else’sAnimism: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes12©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive ChangesPiaget’s Preoperational Stage13Piaget’s Preoperational StageThe Intuitive Thought Substage 4 to 7 years of ageChildren use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to questionsHave difficulty understanding events that cannot be seen and negotiating trafficChildren are unaware of how they know what they know ©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes14Piaget’s Preoperational StageCentration and the Limits of Preoperational ThoughtCentration: centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all othersConservation: altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes15©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive ChangesType of conservationNumberMatterLengthInitial presentationTwo identical rows of objects shown to childTwo identical balls of clay shown to childTwo sticks are aligned in front of childManipulationOne row is spacedExperimenter changes shape of one ballExperimenter moves one stick to rightPreoperational child’s answer to “Are they still the same?”“No, the longer row has more”“No, the longer one has more”“No, the one on top is longer”16Vygotsky’s Theory:Children think and understand primarily through social interactionZone of proximal development (ZPD): range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidanceScaffolding: changing the level of support during a teaching session©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes17Vygotsky’s TheoryLanguage and ThoughtPrivate speech: use of language for self-regulationChildren use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasksInner speech becomes their thoughtsMore private speech = more social competence©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes18Vygotsky’s TheoryTeaching Strategies:Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to educationAssess child’s ZPDUse the child’s ZPD in teachingUse more-skilled peers as tutorsPlace instruction in a meaningful contextTransform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes19©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes20Information ProcessingAttention – the focusing of mental resources on select informationExecutive vs. Sustained AttentionDeficiencies in attentionSalient versus relevant dimensions: paying attention to stimuli that stand outPlanfulness: young children use haphazard comparison strategies©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes21©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.The Planfulness of AttentionJ(b)(a)JIn three pairs of houses, the windows were different.In three pairs of houses, all windows were identical.By filming the reflection in children’s eyes, one could determine what they looked at, how long they looked, and the sequence of their eye movements. Children under 6 were different from older children in this study.22Information ProcessingMemory – retention of information over timeShort-term: individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsalSpeed and efficiency of memory processes improve with age and experience©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes23©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Developmental Changes in Memory SpanIn one study, memory span increased from 3 digits at age 2, to 5 digits at age 7, to 7 digits at age 12.80123456762810Adult412Age (years)Digit Span24Information ProcessingHow Accurate Are Young Children’s Long-Term Memories?There are age differences in children’s susceptibility to suggestionThere are individual differences in susceptibilityInterviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children’s reports about highly salient events©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes25Information ProcessingStrategies and Problem SolvingStrategies – deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of informationEarly childhood transforms the toddler into a child capable of flexible, goal-directed problem solving©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes26Information ProcessingThe Child’s Theory of Mind: awareness of one’s own mental process and the mental processes of othersAge 18 months–3 years: children begin to understand three mental states — perceptions, desires, and emotionsAge 3 to 5 years: children understand false beliefsAge 5 to 9 years: appreciation of the mindAge 7+ years: understand the beliefs and thoughts of others©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive Changes27©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Cognitive ChangesFalse-Belief Performance28Understanding Phonology and MorphologyDuring preschool years, children:Become sensitive to the sounds of spoken wordsProduce all the sounds of their languageDemonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules; use plurals, possessives, prepositions, articles, and verb formsLearn and apply syntax rules©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Language Development29Understanding Phonology and MorphologyChanges in Syntax and SemanticsLearn how words should be ordered and expand their vocabularyAdvances in PragmaticsAdapt their speech in different settingsYoung Children’s LiteracyParents and teachers must develop a positive orientation toward reading and writing©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Language Development30Variations in Early Childhood Education:Child-centered kindergarten: emphasizes the education of the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional developmentMontessori approach: teacher is a facilitator; child is given freedom and spontaneity©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Early Childhood Education31Variations in Early Childhood Education:Developmentally appropriate and inappropriate educationDevelopmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) – emphasizes the importance of creating settings that encourage children to be active learners and reflect children’s interests and capabilities©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Early Childhood Education32©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Early Childhood Education33Education for Young Children Who Are DisadvantagedProject Head Start:Federally funded, created in 1965Provides low-income children the opportunity to acquire skills and experienceControversies in Early Childhood Education:What should the curriculum be?Should preschool education be universal in the United States?©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Early Childhood Education34